State 1
Reference State

This state represented the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site prior to European influence. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included frequent fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. These factors likely caused the community to shift both spatially and temporally between two community phases. This was a diverse, stable, and productive state with the high water table supplying much of the moisture for plant growth. It was dominated by warm-season grasses (i.e. bluestem and Indiangrass) with lesser amounts of cool-season grasses (i.e. needlegrasses). During periods of extended drought, the community shifted to one of needle and thread, prairie sandreed, and little bluestem

Characteristics and indicators. (i.e. characteristics and indicators that can be used to distinguish this state from others). Because of changes in disturbances and other environmental factors (particularly the widespread occurrence of exotic species), the Reference State is considered to no longer exist

Resilience management. (i.e. management strategies that will sustain a state and prevent a transition). If intact, the reference state should probably be managed with current disturbance regimes which has permitted the site to remain in reference condition as well as maintaining the quality and integrity of associated ecological sites. Maintenance of the reference state is contingent upon a monitoring protocol to guide management

Community 1.1
Bluestem-Needlegrass-Indiangrass (Andropogon gerardii, Andropogon hallii, Schizachyrium scoparium-Hesperostipa spp.-Sorghastrum nutans)

This community phase was the most dominant both temporally and spatially. It was dominated by tall and mid warm-season grasses such as big bluestem, prairie sandreed, and Indiangrass, in association with mid cool-season grasses such as porcupinegrass. Other grass and grass-like species included switchgrass, little bluestem, sideoats grama, needle and thread, blue grama, and sedge. A wide variety of native perennial forbs were present including white sagebrush, purple prairie clover, stiff goldenrod, prairie spiderwort, Maximillian sunflower, and blazing star. Common shrubs included prairie willow, prairie rose, leadplant, western snowberry, prairie sagewort, and white meadowsweet. Annual production will vary from about 2400-4000 pounds per acre with grasses and grass-likes, forbs, and shrubs contributing about 80%, 10%, and 10% respectively. Because both warm-season grasses and cool-season grasses and sedges are well represented in the community, production would have been distributed throughout the growing season. This community represents the plant community phase upon which interpretations are primarily based and is described in the “Plant Community Composition and Group Annual Production” portion of this ecological site description.

Community 1.2
Needle and Thread-Prairie Sandreed-Little Bluestem (Hesperostipa comata-Calamovilfa longifolia-Schizachyrium scoparium)

This community would have been characterized by more drought and grazing tolerant species compared to that that of Community Phase 1.1. Prominent grasses would have included needle and thread, prairie sandreed, little bluestem, sideoats grama, and blue grama. White heath aster, field sagewort, Cuman ragweed, rigid sunflower, and prairie sagewort were among the prominent forbs and shrubs. Annual production would have declined in comparison to that of Community Phase 1.1.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Community Pathway 1.1 to 1.2 occurred during periods of below average precipitation and increased disturbance resulting in a decline in the more grazing sensitive species such as big bluestem, Indiangrass, and porcupinegrass with a corresponding increase in the more drought and grazing resistant species such as needle and thread, prairie sandreed, and little bluestem.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Community Pathway 1.2 to 1.1 would have occurred with the return to average precipitation and disturbance regime resulting in an increase in the more grazing sensitive species such as big bluestem, Indiangrass, and porcupinegrass with a corresponding decline in the more drought and grazing resistant species such as needle and thread, prairie sandreed, and little bluestem.

State 2
Native/Invaded State

This state is similar to State 1: Reference State but has now been colonized by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass which are now present in small amounts. Although the state is still dominated by native grasses, an increase in these exotic cool-season grasses can be expected. These exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. These exotic cool-season grasses have been particularly and consistently invasive under extended periods of no use and no fire. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses the transition to State 4: Invaded State should be expected. Annual production of this state can be quite variable, in large part due to the amount of exotic cool-season grasses. Annual production may, however, range from 2400-4000 pounds per acre.

Characteristics and indicators. The presence of trace amounts of exotic cool-season grasses indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2. The presence of exotic biennial or perennial leguminous forbs (i.e. sweet clover, black medic) may not, on their own, indicate a transition from State 1 to State 2 but may facilitate that transition.

Resilience management. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. Grazing management should be applied that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. This may include: (1) grazing when exotic cool-season grasses are actively growing and native cool-season grasses are dormant; (2) applying proper deferment periods allowing native grasses to recover and maintain or improve vigor; (3) adjusting overall grazing intensity to reduce excessive plant litter (above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 – see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet); (4) incorporating early heavy spring utilization which focuses grazing pressure on exotic cool-season grasses and reduces plant litter provided that livestock are moved when grazing selection shifts from exotic cool-season grasses to native grasses. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that maintains or enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. Prescribed burns should be applied as needed to adequately reduce/remove excessive plant litter and maintain the competitive advantage for native species. Timing of prescribed burns (spring vs. summer vs. fall) should be adjusted to account for differences in annual growing conditions and applied during windows of opportunity to best shift the competitive advantage to the native species.

Community 2.1
Bluestem-Needlegrass-Indiangrass (Andropogon gerardii, Andropogon hallii, Schizachyrium scoparium-Hesperostipa spp.-Sorghastrum nutans)

This community phase is similar to Community Phase 1.1 but has been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses which are now minor components of the community. The warm- and cool-season co-dominated community is maintained with grazing systems that allow for adequate recovery periods following grazing events and, potentially, the combination of grazing and prescribed burning which closely mimics the natural disturbance regime. Annual production is similar to that of Community Phase 1.1 (2400-4000 pounds per acre) with graminoids, forbs and shrubs contributing roughly 80%, 10%, and 10% of the production respectively.

Community 2.2
Prairie Sandreed-Blue Grama/Exotic Grasses/Forbs (Calamovilfa longifolia-Bouteloua gracilis/Exotic Grasses/Forbs)

Grazing pressure has reduced the mid/tall less grazing tolerant species, while the shorter more grazing tolerant species have increased compared to Community Phase 2.1. Common grasses often include prairie sandreed, blue grama, needle and thread, Kentucky bluegrass, and/or other exotic cool-season grasses. The common forbs include Cuman ragweed, scouring rush, and goldenrod. Western snowberry and prairie sagewort are common shrubs. Compared to Community Phase 2.1, litter has decreased and peak production has shifted to slightly earlier in the growing season due to a decline in the later maturing warm-season grasses and an corresponding increase in native and exotic cool-season grasses. Annual production is similar to that of Community Phase 2.1 (2400-4000 pounds per acre) with contributions from Kentucky bluegrass or other exotic cool-season grasses approaching 30% of the production. This community phase is often dispersed throughout the pasture, in an overgrazed/undergrazed pattern, typically referred to as patch grazing. Some areas (overgrazed) will exhibit the impacts of heavy use, while other areas (undergrazed) will have a build-up of litter and a high amount of plant decadence. This is a typical pattern found in properly stocked pastures grazed season-long. In the undergrazed patches, litter buildup reduces plant vigor and density and native seedling recruitment declines. Due to a lack of tiller stimulation and sunlight, native bunchgrasses typically develop dead centers and native rhizomatous grasses are limited to small colonies. In the overgrazed patches, plant vigor is reduced; the competitive advantage goes towards the grazing tolerant species such as Kentucky bluegrass. This Community Phase is approaching the threshold leading to a transition to State 4: Invaded State. As a result, it is an “at risk” community. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 4: Invaded State should be expected.

Community 2.3
Bluestem/Exotic Grasses/Western Snowberry (Andropogon gerardii, Andropogon hallii, Schizachyrium scoparium/Exotic Grasses/Symphoricarpos occidentalis)

The removal of disturbances has allowed the exotic cool-season grasses (commonly Kentucky bluegrass) to increase to 20 to 30 percent of the annual production. Tall and mid statured warm and cool season native grasses such as big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, little bluestem, sideoats grama, porcupinegrass, and needle and thread constitute at least 40 percent of the annual production. Native forbs such as Maximilian sunflower, goldenrods, white heath aster, common yarrow, Cuman ragweed, and white sagebrush are present along with exotic forbs such as sweet clover and black medic. Western snowberry and prairie rose are common shrubs. Smooth brome may encroach onto the site, particularly when adjacent to right-of-ways. Annual production is similar to the reference plant community (2400-4000 pounds per acre) but peak production has shifted to early spring to mid-summer due to the invasion of exotic cool-season grasses. Litter cover (extent) is similar to the reference plant community; however, the depth has increased to greater than 5 inches and is not in contact with the soil surface. This Community Phase is approaching the threshold leading to a transition to State 4: Invaded State. As a result, it is an “at risk” community. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 4: Invaded State should be expected.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Community Phase Pathway 2.1 to 2.2 occurs during periods of heavy season-long grazing or seasonal grazing without adequate recovery periods (grazing at the same season of year for extended periods during the active growing season of the dominant native grasses). This results in a marked decline in the big bluestem, little bluestem, porcupinegrass, and Indiangrass, with a corresponding increase in the exotic cool-season grasses, blue grama, prairie sandreed, and forbs.

Pathway 2.1B
Community 2.1 to 2.3

Community Phase Pathway 2.1 to 2.3 occurs during periods of no use and no fire. Plant litter increases and the exotic cool-season grasses (often Kentucky bluegrass) and western snowberry markedly increase.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.1 is initiated by implementation of prescribed grazing and prescribed burning to suppress the exotic cool-season grasses and enable the native grasses, particularly the warm-season species to increase. Prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage from the exotic cool-season species to the native cool-season and warm-season grass species.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3

Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.3 occurs during periods of no use and no fire. This leads to an increase in the exotic cool-season grasses (often Kentucky bluegrass), western snowberry, and litter, with a corresponding decrease in forbs and native grasses, particularly the warm-season species

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1

Community Phase Pathway 2.3 to 2.1 is initiated by implementation of prescribed grazing and prescribed burning. The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early pathway, in part because western snowberry and some other shrubs sprout profusely following one burn. Early season prescribed burns have been successful; however, fall burning may also be an effective technique.

Pathway 2.3B
Community 2.3 to 2.2

Community Phase Pathway 2.3 to 2.2 occurs with heavy season-long grazing. This results in a decrease in the exotic cool-season grasses (often Kentucky bluegrass), western snowberry, and litter, with a corresponding increase in forbs and native grasses, particularly the warm-season grasses.

State 3
Wooded State

This state historically existed as small patches of shrubs and perhaps trees scattered across the site, particularly when near wooded areas where they could have encroached onto the site vegetatively (e.g. rhizomes, root sprouts) or provided a seed source for colonization of the site. Common woody species often include western snowberry, prairie rose, Wood’s rose, white meadowsweet, and willow. Trees such as quaking aspen and green ash may also be present. A marked increase in non-use management and active fire suppression since European influence has enabled this state to expand and become more widespread.

Characteristics and indicators. As trees and shrubs increase in size and density, canopy cover increases which alters micro-climate and reduces fine fuel amounts resulting in reduced fire intensity and frequency. Diversity and production of herbaceous understory is reduced as canopy cover increases.

Community 3.1
Shrubs/Exotic Grasses/Forbss

Shrubs such as western snowberry, prairie rose, Wood’s rose, white meadowsweet, and willow increase to become major components in this community phase. The herbaceous understory is dominated by the shade-tolerant, cool-season sodgrasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass. Common forbs include goldenrod, American licorice, Cuman ragweed, white heath aster, and common yarrow. Quaking aspen, green ash, and perhaps other trees may also be present. Remnants of native warm- and cool-season grasses are still present, but greatly reduced in extent, vigor and production. This community phase is somewhat resistant to change. Once established, time and external resources will be needed to see any immediate recovery. The combination of both prescribed grazing and prescribed fire is the most effective in moving this plant community towards State 2: Native/Invaded State.

State 4
Invaded State

This state is the result of invasion and dominance by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass. The exotic leafy spurge and Canada thistle are also known to invade the site. The exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. Common forbs often include white heath aster, goldenrod, common yarrow, and white sagebrush. Shrubs such as western snowberry and rose may, however, show marked increases. Once the state is well established, prescribed burning and grazing techniques have been largely ineffective in suppressing or eliminating these three species even though some short-term reductions may appear successful. Annual production of this state may vary widely, in part due to variations in the extent of invasion by exotic cool-season grasses. However, annual production may be in the range of 3300-5300 pounds per acre.

Characteristics and indicators. This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.

Resilience management. Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning, and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g. western snowberry) populations

Community 4.1
Exotic Grasses/Forbs

This community phase is dominated by exotic cool-season sodgrasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass. Excessive accumulation of mulch may also be present, particularly when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass. Common forbs often include goldenrod, common yarrow, asters, and Cuman ragweed. Exotic forbs such as leafy spurge and Canada thistle are also known to invade the site. Rose and western snowberry are common shrubs. Annual production of this state may vary widely, in part due to variations in the extent of invasion by exotic cool-season grasses. However, annual production may be in the range of 3300-5300 pounds per acre. The longer this community phase exists the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of exotic cool-season grasses are typically short lived.

State 5
Go-Back State

This state is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T6A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this state is plant succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which may be noxious weeds and need control. Over time, the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass will likely predominate.

Community 5.1
Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics

This community phase is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T6A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this phase is secondary succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, including noxious weeds (e.g. Canada thistle, leafy spurge) which may need control. Over time, the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass will likely predominate.

State 6
Cropland State

Cropland State results from planting and production of annual crops. This plant community is most commonly associated with cropped fields. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of tillage induced compaction, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques..

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

This is the transition from the State 1: Reference State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State due to the introduction and establishment of exotic cool-season grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass. This transition was probably inevitable and corresponded to a decline in native warm-season and cool-season grasses. This transition may have been exacerbated by chronic season-long or heavy late season grazing. Complete rest from grazing and suppression of fire could also have hastened the transition. The threshold between states was crossed when Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, quackgrass, crested wheatgrass or other exotic species became established on the site.

Constraints to recovery. Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.

Transition T3A
State 1 to 3

This is the transition from State 3: Wooded State to State 4: Invaded State resulting from brush control (e.g. mechanical and/or chemical, repeated prescribed burns).

Constraints to recovery. Labor and financial cost of removal/control of woody species either through repeated prescribed burns, mechanical and/or chemical treatment.

Context dependence. Societal norms have accepted woody invasion as positive for wildlife habitat, carbon sequestration, aesthetics, etc. Livestock managers may not understand the loss of production due to woody invasion and loss of native grass species. Wildlife managers may need to manage woody habitat for exotic wildlife species such as ring-necked pheasants instead of sharp-tailed grouse or other grassland nesting birds which are intolerant to woody species invasion.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

This transition from the State 2: Native/Invaded to State 3: Wooded State generally occurs during extended periods of no use or very light grazing and no fire. It frequently occurs when the site is in close proximity to wooded areas where the woodland vegetation may encroach vegetatively upon the site and/or serve as a seed source for these species to colonize the site. It has also become more frequent following European settlement when the historic fire regime was markedly reduced.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

This transition from the State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 4: Invaded State generally occurs with heavy season-long grazing. Exotic cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass become the dominant graminoids. Studies indicate that a threshold may exist in this transition when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30% of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40% of the plant community composition. Similar thresholds may exist for smooth brome and quackgrass. This transition may occur under a wide range of managerial conditions ranging from no use and no fire to heavy season-long grazing (primarily Kentucky bluegrass).

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

This restoration from State 3: Wooded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with brush control, perhaps followed by a range planting. Initial use of herbicides and/or mechanical brush control to reduce the shrubs will permit adequate fine fuel loads to enable the application of prescribed burning to further control sprouting shrubs species. However, depending upon level of remnant native grasses and forbs, a range planting may also be necessary to complete the restoration. A combination of mechanical brush management, chemical treatment, and prescribed burning is necessary to remove the woody vegetation and, if necessary, to prepare the seedbed for a successful range planting. Once this is accomplished, it may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because many of the shrubs (e.g. western snowberry) sprout profusely following one burn. After establishment of the native plant species, management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses. Due to the resprouting nature of woody species within MLRA 56, repeated treatments will be necessary for a transition from this state. Following the removal of woody species, other restoration practices such as range planting, prescribed burning, and prescribed grazing may be necessary to complete the restoration. The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will help suppress any exotic cool-season grasses on the site.

Context dependence. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fuel type (herbaceous vs. shrub vs. tree), fine fuel amount and orientation; (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on woody and exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses). The method of brush management will be site specific but generally the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control, or biological control - either singularly or in combination - in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species. A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique. Management (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species. Adding non-native species can impact the above and below ground biota. Some evidence suggests the addition of exotic legumes to the seeding mixture may favor exotic cool-season grass expansion/invasion.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

This is the transition from State 3: Wooded State to State 4: Invaded State resulting from brush control (e.g. mechanical and/or chemical, repeated prescribed burns).

Constraints to recovery. Labor and financial cost of removal/control of woody species either through repeated prescribed burns, mechanical and/or chemical treatment.

Context dependence. Societal norms have accepted woody invasion as positive for wildlife habitat, carbon sequestration, aesthetics, etc. Livestock managers may not understand the loss of production due to woody invasion and loss of native grass species. Wildlife managers may need to manage woody habitat for exotic wildlife species such as ring-necked pheasants instead of sharp-tailed grouse or other grassland nesting birds which are intolerant to woody species invasion.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 2

This restoration pathway from State 4: Invaded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State may be accomplished with the implementation of long-term prescribed grazing and prescribed burning, assuming there is an adequate component of native grasses to respond to the treatments. Both prescribed grazing and prescribed burning are likely necessary to successfully initiate this restoration pathway, the success of which depends upon the presence of a remnant population of native grasses in Community Phase 4.1. That remnant population, however, may not be readily apparent without close inspection. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because many of the shrubs (e.g. western snowberry) sprout profusely following one burn. Early season prescribed burns have been successful; however, fall burning may also be an effective technique. The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage from the exotic cool-season grasses to the native cool-season grasses.

Context dependence. Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species. Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g. September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation (e.g. “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses). The longer this community phase exists, the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of Kentucky bluegrass or smooth brome are typically short-lived.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 3

The transition from State 4: Invaded Site to State 3: Wooded State generally occurs during extended periods of no use or very light grazing and no fire. It frequently occurs when the site is in close proximity to wooded areas where the woodland vegetation may encroach vegetatively upon the site and/or serve as a seed source for these species to colonize the site. It has also become more frequent following European settlement when the historic fire regime was markedly reduced.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 2

This Restoration Pathway from State 5: Go-Back State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with a successful range planting. Following seeding, prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, haying, or use of herbicides will generally be necessary to achieve the desired result and control any noxious weeds. It may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. After establishment of the native plant species, prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources; management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses.

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 4

A failed range planting and/or secondary succession will lead to State 4: Invaded State

Context dependence. Failed range plantings can result from many causes, both singularly and in combination, including: drought, poor seedbed preparation, improper seeding methods, seeded species not adapted to the site, insufficient weed control, herbicide carryover, poor seed quality (purity & germination), improper management.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 5

This transition from any plant community to State 5: Go-Back State. It is most commonly associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of range planting, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of a tillage induced compaction layer, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.