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Ecological site R102DY006SD

Limy Subirrigated

Last updated: 8/14/2024
Accessed: 11/23/2024

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 102D–Prairie Coteau

This area makes up about 7,867 square miles (20,375 square kilometers), consisting mostly of nearly level to undulating till plains with potholes and moraines. Elevation ranges from 1,150 to 2,130 feet (350 to 650 meters). The average annual precipitation is 22 to 29 inches (559 to 734 millimeters). The average annual temperature is 42 to 45 degrees F (6 to 7 degrees C). The dominant soil order in this MLRA is Mollisols. The soils in this area dominantly have a frigid temperature regime, and an aquic or udic moisture regime. They are generally very deep and loamy. Soils range from well drained to very poorly drained. Parent materials are dominantly fine-loamy till to clayey material, with smaller amounts of outwash, glaciofluvial deposits, eolian deposits, alluvium, and, to a lesser extent, loess and organic materials.

Classification relationships

*Fenneman (1916) Physiographic Regions*
Division - Interior Plains
East:
Province - Central Lowland
Section - Western Lake / Dissected Till Plains (12b/12e)

*USFS (2007) Ecoregions*
Domain - Humid Temperate
Division - Prairie
Province - Prairie Parkland (Temperate)
Section - North-Central Glaciated Plains (251B)

*EPA Ecoregions (Omernik 1997)*
I - Great Plains (9)
II - Temperate Prairies (9.2)
III - Aspen Parkland/Northern Glaciated Plains (9.2.1)

Ecological site concept

The Limy Subirrigated ecological site typically occurs along the edges of drainageways or closed depressions. Soils are somewhat poorly drained which have a water table within 2 to 5 feet of the soil surface that persists longer than the wettest part of the growing season typically until the month of August. Soils will effervesce with acid at or near the surface. Slopes typically range from 0 to 3 percent. Vegetation in the Reference State is dominated by warm season grasses such as Indiangrass, big bluestem, little bluestem. Forbs include goldenrods, cudweed sagewort, heath aster, scurfpea, and western yarrow. Non-native species such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass may invade this site due to a change in disturbance regime.

Associated sites

R102DY004SD	Wet Meadow These sites occur in a basin or closed depression. Soils are poorly drained and the site ponds water for 4 to 8 weeks in the spring of the year or after a heavy rain.
R102DY020SD	Loamy Overflow These sites occur in upland swales. Soils are moderately well drained which have water flow into and over/through the site.
R102DY003SD	Subirrigated These sites occur in drainageways. Soils are somewhat poorly drained which have a water table within 2 to 5 feet of the soil surface that persists longer than the wettest part of the growing season typically until the month of August.
R102DY002SD	Linear Meadow These sites occur in drainageways. Soils are poorly and very poorly drained which have a water table within 0 to 2 feet of the soil surface that persists longer than the wettest part of the growing season typically until the month of August.

Similar sites

R102DY003SD	Subirrigated The Subirrigated site occurs in drainageways. Soils are somewhat poorly drained which have a water table within 2 to 5 feet of the soil surface that persists longer than the wettest part of the growing season typically until the month of August. A Subirrigated site will have more big bluestem, less little bluestem and higher production than a Limy Subirrigated site.

R102DY003SD

Subirrigated

The Subirrigated site occurs in drainageways. Soils are somewhat poorly drained which have a water table within 2 to 5 feet of the soil surface that persists longer than the wettest part of the growing season typically until the month of August. A Subirrigated site will have more big bluestem, less little bluestem and higher production than a Limy Subirrigated site.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	(1) Sorghastrum nutans (2) Andropogon gerardii

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Physiographic features

This site typically occurs along rims of drainageways, closed depressions and potholes.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Drainageway (2) Closed depression (3) Pothole
Runoff class	Very low to medium
Flooding duration	Brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	None to occasional
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	430 – 610 m
Slope	0 – 2%
Water table depth	51 – 102 cm
Aspect	W, NW, N, NE, E, SE, S, SW

Climatic features

The average annual precipitation is 22 to 28 inches. Half or more of the precipitation falls during the growing season. Rainfall typically occurs during high-intensity, convective thunderstorms in summer. In the western part of the MLRA, rainfall is less abundant and not always adequate for full maturation of crops. Precipitation in winter is typically snow. The average annual temperature is 42 to 45 degrees F. The freeze-free period averages 142 days and ranges from 131 to 150 days.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	113-125 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	137-149 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	610-686 mm
Frost-free period (actual range)	110-129 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	130-151 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	559-686 mm
Frost-free period (average)	120 days
Freeze-free period (average)	142 days
Precipitation total (average)	635 mm

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 1. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 2. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 4. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 5. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 6. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) WEBSTER [USC00399004], Webster, SD
(2) WAUBAY NWR [USC00398980], Waubay, SD
(3) WATERTOWN RGNL AP [USW00014946], Watertown, SD
(4) WATERTOWN 1W [USC00398930], Watertown, SD
(5) CASTLEWOOD [USC00391519], Castlewood, SD
(6) CLEAR LAKE [USC00391777], Clear Lake, SD
(7) ARLINGTON 1 W [USC00390281], Arlington, SD
(8) BROOKINGS 2 NE [USC00391076], Brookings, SD
(9) ASTORIA 4S [USC00390422], White, SD

Soil features

Soils are formed in alluvium, loess, or till. Surface textures are typically loam or silty clay loam.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium (2) Loess (3) Till
Surface texture	(1) Loam (2) Silty clay loam
Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow
Soil depth	203 cm
Surface fragment cover <=3"	0%
Surface fragment cover >3"	0%
Available water capacity (0-101.6cm)	17.53 – 19.05 cm
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-101.6cm)	10 – 45%
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-25.4cm)	6.6 – 8.4
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-152.4cm)	1 – 5%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-152.4cm)	0 – 1%

Ecological dynamics

The site which is located in the Prairie Pothole Region developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions and included natural influence of large herding herbivores and occasional fire. Changes will occur in the plant communities due to weather fluctuations and/or management actions. Under adverse impacts, a relatively rapid decline in vegetative vigor and composition can occur. Under favorable conditions the site has the potential to resemble the Reference State. Interpretations for this site are based primarily on the 1.1 Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Blustem Plant Community Phase. This community phase and the Reference State have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts also have been considered.

This ecological site (ES) has been grazed by domestic livestock since they have been introduced into the area. The introduction of domestic livestock and the use of fencing and reliable water sources have changed the ecological dymanics of this site. Heavy continuous grazing without adequate recovery periods following each grazing occurrence over several years causes this site to depart from the interpretive plant community. Species such as little bluestem, sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) will initially increase. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) will decrease in frequency and production. Heavy continuous grazing causes Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) to increase and eventually develop into a sod condition. Extended periods of non-use and no fire will result in a plant community having high litter levels, which favors an increase in Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermus). In time, shrubs such as western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis) will also increase.

Following the state and transition diagram are narratives for each of the described states and community phases. These may not represent every possibility, but they are the most prevalent and repeatable states/community phases. The plant composition tables shown below have been developed from the best available knowledge at the time of this revision. As more data are collected, some of these community phases and/or states may be revised or removed, and new ones may be added. The main purpose for including the descriptions here is to capture the current knowledge and experience at the time of this revision.

State and transition model

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded State

3. Invaded State

4. Crop Production State

T1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion
T1B	-	Tillage
T2A	-	Non-use, no fire, heavy continuous grazing
T2C	-	Tillage
R3A	-	Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, seeding
T3	-	Tillage
R4A	-	Seeding
R4B	-	Seeding, abandonment of cropping

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem

1.2. Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Forbs-Porcupine Grass

1.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Forbs-Kentucky Bluegrass

2.2. Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem

2.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
2.2A	-	Prescribed grazing

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Smooth Brome-Kentucky Bluegrass-Little Bluestem

3.2. Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass-Forbs

3.3. Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

3.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
3.2A	-	Prescribed grazing
3.3A	-	Time without disturbances

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Annual Crops

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State represents the natural range of variability that dominates the dynamics of this ES. This state is typically dominated by warm-season grass and grass-like species. Before European settlement, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included periodic fire, grazing by large herding ungulates, and fluctuations in the water table and ponding frequency and duration. Frequent surface fires (3 to 5 years) and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Today, the primary disturbance is from a lack of fire, concentrated livestock grazing, and weather fluctuations. Species that are desirable for livestock and wildlife can decline and a corresponding increase in less desirable species will occur.

Dominant plant species

leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
willow (Salix), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
porcupinegrass (Hesperostipa spartea), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
western marbleseed (Onosmodium bejariense var. occidentale), other herbaceous
Norwegian cinquefoil (Potentilla norvegica), other herbaceous

Community 1.1
Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem

Interpretations are based primarily on the 1.1 Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase (this is also considered to be climax). This plant community evolved with grazing by large herbivores, frequent surface fires, and periodic flooding events and is suited for grazing by domestic livestock. This plant community can be found on areas that are grazed and where the grazed plants receive adequate periods of rest during the growing season in order to recover. The potential vegetation was about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses. The major grasses included Indiangrass, big bluestem, and little bluestem. Other grass or grass-like species included sideoats grama, porcupine grass (Hesperostipa spartea), green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), and sedge. This plant community was resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high drought tolerance. This was a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 7. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (kg/hectare)	Representative value (kg/hectare)	High (kg/hectare)
Grass/Grasslike	3447	4096	4601
Forb	207	471	846
Shrub/Vine	45	141	269
Total	3699	4708	5716

Figure 8. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0205, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant.. Warm-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	2	5	15	25	30	15	7	1	0	0

Community 1.2
Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Forbs-Porcupine Grass

This plant community evolved under heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 75 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included little bluestem, sideoats grama, and porcupine grass. Grasses of secondary importance included Indiangrass, big bluestem, blue grama, green needlegrass, and slender wheatgrass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community included Canada goldenrod (Solidago Canadensis), cudweed sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana), heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), scurfpea (Psoralidium), stiff goldenrod (Oligoneuron rigidum), and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). This plant community had similar plant composition to the 2.2 Little Bluestem-Blue Grama-Forbs-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass. When compared to the 1.1 Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase, sideoats grama and little bluestem increased. Production of tall warm-season grasses was reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes would have been functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses would have been reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allowed for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species.

Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 1.2 Little Bluestem-Blue Grama-Forbs-Porcupine Grass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed Grazing, and/or prescribed burning returned to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest would have converted this plant community to the 1.1 Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase.

State 2
Native/Invaded State

This state represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by warm-season grasses. It can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Taller warm-season species can decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur.

Dominant plant species

western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
willow (Salix), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
porcupinegrass (Hesperostipa spartea), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
Indianhemp (Apocynum cannabinum), other herbaceous

Community 2.1
Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Forbs-Kentucky Bluegrass

This plant community phase is similar to the 1.1 Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Blustem Plant Community Phase, but it also contains minor amounts of nonnative invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (up to about 10 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community is dominated by warm-season grasses. The major grasses include big bluestem, Indiangrass, and little bluestem. Other grass or grass-like species include switchgrass, Canada wildrye (Elymus Canadensis), sideoats grama, prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), slender wheatgrass, and sedges. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0205, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant.. Warm-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	2	5	15	25	30	15	7	1	0	0

Community 2.2
Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem

This plant community is a result of heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 75 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include little bluestem, sideoats grama, and Kentucky bluegrass. Grasses of secondary importance included Indiangrass, big bluestem, blue grama, porcupine grass, and slender wheatgrass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community included Canada goldenrod, cudweed sagewort, heath aster, scurfpea, stiff goldenrod, and western yarrow. When compared to the 1.1 Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase, sideoats grama and little bluestem increased. Production of tall warm-season grasses was reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes are functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses are reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allows for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species. The introduction of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass results in alterations to the soil profile. Organic matter levels tend to decrease and begin to be concentrated more in the surface layers and the structure will begin to be modified. These changes favor the shallow-rooted species and hasten their eventual dominance if steps are not taken to reduce these species.

Figure 11. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (kg/hectare)	Representative value (kg/hectare)	High (kg/hectare)
Grass/Grasslike	3032	3410	3626
Forb	179	504	970
Shrub/Vine	39	121	224
Total	3250	4035	4820

Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 2.2 Little Bluestem-Blue Grama-Forbs-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

State 3
Invaded State

This state is a result of encroachment mainly by invasive introduced cool-season grasses. The ecological processes are not functioning, especially the biotic processes and the hydrologic functions. The introduced cool-season grasses cause reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. The opportunity for high intensity spring burns is severely reduced by early greenup and increased moisture and humidity at the soil surface, and grazing pressure cannot cause a reduction in sodgrass dominance. Production is limited to the sod forming species. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases and energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by root depth of the dominant species.

Dominant plant species

western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
willow (Salix), shrub
leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
New England aster (Symphyotrichum novae-angliae), other herbaceous
Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), other herbaceous

Community 3.1
Smooth Brome-Kentucky Bluegrass-Little Bluestem

This plant community phase is a result of extended periods of nonuse and no fire or occasionally light levels of grazing over several years. It is characterized by dominance of smooth bromegrass and Kentucky bluegrass. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short, as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. The dominance of these introduced species has been shown to alter the biotic component of the soil, as well as organic matter levels and eventually the soil structure. These alterations perpetuate the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass and tend to make establishment of native species extremely difficult.

Figure 13. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (kg/hectare)	Representative value (kg/hectare)	High (kg/hectare)
Grass/Grasslike	3239	3901	4321
Forb	196	448	807
Shrub/Vine	39	135	252
Total	3474	4484	5380

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0201, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

Community 3.2
Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass-Forbs

This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and quackgrass (Elymus repens). The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.

Figure 15. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (kg/hectare)	Representative value (kg/hectare)	High (kg/hectare)
Grass/Grasslike	1564	2219	2802
Forb	230	404	639
Shrub/Vine	–	67	146
Total	1794	2690	3587

Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0201, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

Community 3.3
Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

This plant community developed under continuous heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable, but often include nonnative invasive and/or early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high, but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites.

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites and no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 years or more) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density will shift this community to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass-Forbs Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest may convert this plant community to the 3.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass-Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 3.3A
Community 3.3 to 3.2

This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass-Forbs Plant Community Phase.

State 4
Crop Production State

This state is characterized by the production of annual crops using a variety of tillage and cropping systems along with management practices.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea), grass
wheat (Triticum), grass
soybean (Glycine), other herbaceous

Community 4.1
Annual Crops

This plant community developed with the use of a variety of tillage systems and cropping systems for the production of annual crops including corn, soybeans, wheat, sugar beet and a variety of other crops.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and/or heavy continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native-Invaded State (State 2).

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass-Little Bluestem Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3). Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass-Forbs Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) coupled with prescribed burning may lead this 3.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass-Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2). Seeding followed by Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) may lead this Invaded State (State 3) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Transition T3
State 3 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 2

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 4) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 3

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 4) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3). Cropping followed by abandonment may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the 3.3 Annual Pioneer- Perennial Pioneer Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3).

Additional community tables

Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (kg/hectare)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			942–2118
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	471–1883	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	235–1648	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–235	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			706–1412
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	471–1412	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	94–706	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	0–235	–
3	Cool-season Grasses			235–1177
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	94–942	–
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	47–471	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	47–235	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	47–235	–
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–141	–
	northern reedgrass	CASTI3	Calamagrostis stricta ssp. inexpansa	0–141	–
4	Other Native Grasses			47–235
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	47–188	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–188	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–47	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–47	–
5	Grass-likes			47–235
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	47–235	–
	spikerush	ELEOC	Eleocharis	0–141	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–94	–
Forb
6	Forbs			235–706
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	47–188	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	47–141	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	47–141	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	47–94	–
	New England aster	SYNO2	Symphyotrichum novae-angliae	0–94	–
	western marbleseed	ONBEO	Onosmodium bejariense var. occidentale	47–94	–
	Norwegian cinquefoil	PONO3	Potentilla norvegica	47–94	–
	blackeyed Susan	RUHI2	Rudbeckia hirta	0–94	–
	Indianhemp	APCA	Apocynum cannabinum	47–94	–
	meadow zizia	ZIAP	Zizia aptera	47–94	–
	tall blazing star	LIAS	Liatris aspera	47–94	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	47–94	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	47–94	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	47–94	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–94	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	47–94	–
	smooth horsetail	EQLA	Equisetum laevigatum	0–47	–
	Virginia strawberry	FRVI	Fragaria virginiana	0–47	–
	closed bottle gentian	GEAN	Gentiana andrewsii	0–47	–
	downy gentian	GEPU5	Gentiana puberulenta	0–47	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–47	–
	Canadian anemone	ANCA8	Anemone canadensis	0–47	–
	common goldstar	HYHI2	Hypoxis hirsuta	0–47	–
	palespike lobelia	LOSP	Lobelia spicata	0–47	–
	rough bugleweed	LYAS	Lycopus asper	0–47	–
	bluebell bellflower	CARO2	Campanula rotundifolia	0–47	–
	blue-eyed grass	SISYR	Sisyrinchium	0–47	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–47	–
	prairie violet	VIPE2	Viola pedatifida	0–47	–
Shrub/Vine
7	Shrubs			47–235
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	47–188	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–94	–
	willow	SALIX	Salix	0–94	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–94	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–94	–

Table 10. Community 2.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (kg/hectare)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–404	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–404	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–121	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	404–1412	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	202–726	–
3	Cool-season Grasses			–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–202	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–161	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–121	–
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	0–121	–
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–81	–
4	Other Native Grasses			–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	40–282	–
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	40–161	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–81	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–40	–
5	Grass-likes			–
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	40–202	–
	spikerush	ELEOC	Eleocharis	0–161	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–81	–
6	Non-Native Grasses			–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	202–605	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–282	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	0–202	–
	reed canarygrass	PHAR3	Phalaris arundinacea	0–202	–
Forb
7	Forbs			–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	40–242	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	40–202	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	40–161	–
	Indianhemp	APCA	Apocynum cannabinum	40–121	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	40–121	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–121	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	40–121	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	40–121	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	40–121	–
	New England aster	SYNO2	Symphyotrichum novae-angliae	0–121	–
	western marbleseed	ONBEO	Onosmodium bejariense var. occidentale	0–121	–
	tall blazing star	LIAS	Liatris aspera	0–81	–
	rough bugleweed	LYAS	Lycopus asper	0–40	–
	Norwegian cinquefoil	PONO3	Potentilla norvegica	0–40	–
	blackeyed Susan	RUHI2	Rudbeckia hirta	0–40	–
	meadow zizia	ZIAP	Zizia aptera	0–40	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–40	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	0–40	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–40	–
	smooth horsetail	EQLA	Equisetum laevigatum	0–40	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	40–161	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–81	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–81	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–81	–
	willow	SALIX	Salix	0–40	–

Table 11. Community 3.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (kg/hectare)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			0–224
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–135	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–135	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–90	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			0–897
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–897	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–269	–
3	Cool-season Grasses			0–448
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	0–359	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–224	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–135	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–45	–
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–45	–
4	Other Native Grasses			0–224
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–179	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–135	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–45	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–45	–
5	Grass-likes			45–224
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	45–224	–
	spikerush	ELEOC	Eleocharis	0–179	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–90	–
6	Non-Native Grasses			1121–2690
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	673–2466	–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	448–1569	–
	reed canarygrass	PHAR3	Phalaris arundinacea	0–673	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	0–135	–
Forb
7	Forbs			224–673
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	45–224	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	45–224	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	45–179	–
	New England aster	SYNO2	Symphyotrichum novae-angliae	0–179	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–135	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	45–135	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	45–135	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	45–135	–
	Indianhemp	APCA	Apocynum cannabinum	0–90	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–90	–
	tall blazing star	LIAS	Liatris aspera	0–45	–
	rough bugleweed	LYAS	Lycopus asper	0–45	–
	western marbleseed	ONBEO	Onosmodium bejariense var. occidentale	0–45	–
	Norwegian cinquefoil	PONO3	Potentilla norvegica	0–45	–
	smooth horsetail	EQLA	Equisetum laevigatum	0–45	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			45–224
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	45–224	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–90	–
	willow	SALIX	Salix	0–90	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–45	–

Table 12. Community 3.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (kg/hectare)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			0–54
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–54	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–27	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			0–135
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–135	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–81	–
3	Cool-season Grasses			0–81
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–81	–
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	0–54	–
4	Other Native Grasses			0–188
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–161	–
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–81	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–27	–
5	Grass-likes			27–215
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	27–188	–
	spikerush	ELEOC	Eleocharis	0–135	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–54	–
6	Non-Native Grasses			807–1883
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	538–1614	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	27–269	–
	reed canarygrass	PHAR3	Phalaris arundinacea	0–135	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–135	–
Forb
7	Forbs			269–538
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	27–538	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	27–215	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	27–188	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	27–188	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	27–135	–
	New England aster	SYNO2	Symphyotrichum novae-angliae	0–108	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	27–81	–
	Indianhemp	APCA	Apocynum cannabinum	0–81	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–54	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	0–54	–
	Norwegian cinquefoil	PONO3	Potentilla norvegica	0–27	–
	smooth horsetail	EQLA	Equisetum laevigatum	0–27	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			0–135
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–135	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–54	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–27	–

Interpretations

Animal community

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations
The following table lists annual, suggested initial stocking rates with average growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ES description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. More accurate carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Indiangrass/Big Bluestem/Little Bluestem (1.1 & 2.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 4200
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 1.15

Little Bluestem/Grama/Forbs/Kentucky Bluegrass (2.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 3600
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.99

Smooth Bromegrass/Kentucky Bluegrass/Little Bluestem (3.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 4000
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 1.10

Kentucky Bluegrass/Quackgrass/Forbs (3.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2400
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.66

Annual/Pioneer, Non-Native Perennial (3.3)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 1200
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.33

*Based on 912 lbs./acre (air-dry weight) per Animal Unit Month (AUM), and on 25 percent harvest efficiency (refer to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), National Range and Pasture Handbook).

Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements and added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic groups B and C. Infiltration is typically moderately slow and runoff potential for this site varies from negligible to low depending on soil hydrologic group, slope, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for higher infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by Kentucky bluegrass and/or smooth bromegrass will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching, and other opportunities. The wide varieties of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an esthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

MLRA 102D was created in 2022 with Agricultural Handbook 296 updated. This area was MLRA 102A prior to this time. Information was copied from MLRA 102A ESDs to create the MLRA 102D ESDs.

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; and Bruce Kunze, Soil Scientist, NRCS.

Data Source Sample Period State County
NP-ECS-1 (0010746039) 2007 SD Deuel
NP-ECS-1 (0130746039) 2007 SD Deuel

Other references

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C. Carpenter, and W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of the Coterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. Washington, DC. 92 pps.

Gilbert, M. C., Whited, P. M., Clairain Jr, E. J., & Smith, R. D. (2006). A Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Prairie Potholes. Washington DC.

Samson, F. B., & Knopf, F. L. (1996). Prairie Conservation Preserving North America's Most Endagered Ecosystem. Washington D.C.: Island Press.

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. Accessed March 2018.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook, Revision 1. Grazing Lands Technology Institute. 214 pps.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296. 672pps.

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2022. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 296.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, 2150 Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/nasis/)

USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 27 March 2018). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. 2013. Level III and Level IV Ecoregions of the Continental United States. Corvallis, OR, U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, map scale 1:3,000,000. Available at http://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- continental-united-states. (Accessed 1 March 2018).

Contributors

Megan Baxter
Stan Boltz
Lance Howe
Steve Winter

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 8/14/2024

Acknowledgments

Contact for Lead Authors: Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS), Redfield Soil Survey Office Redfield, SD; Lance Howe (Lance.Howe@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; and Steve Winter (Steven.Winter@usda.gov), Soil Scientist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD

Additional Information Acknowledgment: Jason Hermann (Jason.Hermann@usda.gov), Area Rangeland Management Specialist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	David Schmidt, Tim Nordquist, Stan Boltz
Contact for lead author
Date	12/04/2007
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Rills should not be present.
Presence of water flow patterns:
Barely observable.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Essentially, non-existent.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground less than 5% and less than 2 inches in diameter.
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Active gullies should not be present.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Little to no plant litter movement. Plant litter remains in place and is not moved by erosional forces.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Stability class usually 6. Typically high root content, organic matter, and granular structure. Soil surface is very resistant to erosion.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Use soil series description for depth and color of A-horizon.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Healthy, deep rooted native grasses enhance infiltration and reduce runoff.
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
No compaction layer should be evident.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Mid warm-season bunch grass >> tall warm-season rhizomatous grass

Sub-dominant:
> tall cool-season bunch grass > mid cool-season rhizomatous grass > short cool-season grass = forb

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little to no evidence of decadence or mortality.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
85-90%, roughly 0.5 inch thick or less. Litter cover is in contact with soil surface.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
3800 – 5000 lbs./acre air-dry weight, average 4,400 lbs./acre air-dry weight
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Refer to State and Local Noxious Weed List.
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All species are capable of reproducing.

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Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded State

3. Invaded State

4. Crop Production State

T1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion
T1B	-	Tillage
T2A	-	Non-use, no fire, heavy continuous grazing
T2C	-	Tillage
R3A	-	Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, seeding
T3	-	Tillage
R4A	-	Seeding
R4B	-	Seeding, abandonment of cropping