Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site F109XY022MO
Till Exposed Backslope Woodland
Last updated: 7/01/2024
Accessed: 11/23/2024
General information
Approved. An approved ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model, enough information to identify the ecological site, and full documentation for all ecosystem states contained in the state and transition model.
Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 109X–Iowa and Missouri Heavy Till Plain
The Iowa and Missouri Heavy Till Plain is an area of rolling hills interspersed with interfluve divides and alluvial valleys. Elevation ranges from about 660 feet (200 meters) along the lower reaches of rivers, to about 980 feet (300 meters) on stable interfluve summits in southern Iowa. Relief is about 80 to 160 feet (25 to 50 meters) between major streams and adjacent interfluve summits. Most of the till plain drains south to the Missouri River via the Grand and Chariton River systems, but the northeastern portion drains southeast to the Mississippi River. Loess caps the pre-Illinoisan aged till on interfluves, whereas the till is exposed on side slopes. Mississippian aged limestone and Pennsylvanian aged sandstone and shale crop out on lower slopes in some areas.
Classification relationships
Atlas of Missouri Ecoregions (Nigh & Schroeder, 2002):
This ecological site occurs in many Land Type Associations within the following Subsections:
Chariton River Hills
Claypan Till Plains
Mississippi River Hills
Wyaconda River Dissected Till Plains
Terrestrial Natural Community Type in Missouri (Nelson, 2010):
The reference state for this ecological site is most similar to a Dry-Mesic Loess/Glacial Till Woodland.
Missouri Department of Conservation Forest and Woodland Communities (Missouri Department of Conservation, 2006):
The reference state for this ecological site is most similar to White Oak Loess/Glacial Till Woodland.
National Vegetation Classification System Vegetation Association (NatureServe, 2010):
The reference state for this ecological site is within the North-Central Interior Dry-Mesic Oak Forest and Woodland (CES202.046), and is most similar to Quercus alba - (Carya ovata)/ Carex pensylvanica Glaciated Woodland (CEGL002134).
Ecological site concept
Till Exposed Backslope Woodlands occupy the southerly and westerly aspects of steep, dissected slopes, and are mapped in complex with the Till Protected Backslope Forest ecological site. These ecological sites occur primarily in the eastern and southeastern portion of the Till Plain. They are typically downslope from Loess Upland Woodland or Till Upland Woodland ecological sites, and generally occupy the mid to lowest portion of the hillslope. In a few places, a narrow band of Shale Protected Backslope ecological site is downslope. Soils are very deep, with dense till subsoils that are mainly clay loam. The reference plant community is woodland dominated by an overstory of white oak and black oak, with an open understory and a dense, diverse herbaceous ground flora.
Associated sites
| F109XY003MO |
Loess Upland Woodland Loess Upland Woodlands are often upslope from Till Exposed Backslope Woodlands. |
|---|---|
| F109XY007MO |
Till Upland Woodland Till Upland Woodlands are often upslope from Till Exposed Backslope Woodlands. |
| F109XY009MO |
Till Protected Backslope Forest Till Protected Backslope Forests are mapped in complex with the Till Exposed Backslope Woodlands, on northerly and easterly aspects. |
| F109XY025MO |
Interbedded Sedimentary Exposed Backslope Woodland Interbedded Sedimentary Exposed Backslope Woodlands are downslope from Till Exposed Backslope Woodlands in some places. |
Similar sites
| R109XY008MO |
Till Backslope Savanna Till Backslope Savannas have thicker, darker surface layers from historic grassland vegetation. Bur oak and post oak dominated the much more open canopy. Ground flora were similar to adjacent prairie site and fire frequencies were higher. |
|---|---|
| F109XY007MO |
Till Upland Woodland Till Upland Woodlands are on upper slopes and shoulders, and are not as steep. Canopy composition is similar to Till Exposed Backslope Woodlands but more open with a ground flora having a higher grass density grass. |
| F109XY025MO |
Interbedded Sedimentary Exposed Backslope Woodland Interbedded Sedimentary Exposed Backslope Woodlands are downslope from Till Exposed Backslope Woodlands in some places. Canopy composition and structure are similar to Till Exposed Backslope Woodlands. Fire frequency was generally less. |
Table 1. Dominant plant species
| Tree |
(1) Quercus alba |
|---|---|
| Shrub |
(1) Rhus aromatica |
| Herbaceous |
(1) Bromus pubescens |
Physiographic features
This site is on upland backslopes, with slopes of 14 to 35 percent. It is on exposed aspects (south, southwest, and west), which receive significantly more solar radiation than the protected aspects. The site receives runoff from upslope summit and shoulder sites, and generates runoff to adjacent, downslope ecological sites. This site does not flood.
The following figure (adapted from Festervand, 1994) shows the typical landscape position of this ecological site, and landscape relationships among the major ecological sites in the uplands and adjacent floodplains. The site is within the area labeled “3”, and is typically downslope from Till Upland Woodland ecological sites. In areas where the local drainageways have not dissected into the underlying residuum, Upland Drainagway or Floodplain ecological sites are directly downslope.
Figure 2. Landscape relationships for this ecological site
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
| Landforms |
(1)
Hill
|
|---|---|
| Flooding frequency | None |
| Ponding frequency | None |
| Elevation | 213 – 305 m |
| Slope | 14 – 35% |
| Water table depth | 61 – 183 cm |
| Aspect | W, SE, S, SW |
Climatic features
The Iowa and Missouri Heavy Till Plain MLRA has a continental type of climate marked by strong seasonality. In winter, dry-cold air masses, unchallenged by any topographic barriers, periodically swing south from the northern plains and Canada. If they invade reasonably humid air, snowfall and rainfall result. In summer, moist, warm air masses, equally unchallenged by topographic barriers, swing north from the Gulf of Mexico and can produce abundant amounts of rain, either by fronts or by convectional processes. In some summers, high pressure stagnates over the region, creating extended droughty periods. Spring and fall are transitional seasons when abrupt changes in temperature and precipitation may occur due to successive, fast-moving fronts separating contrasting air masses.
This MLRA experiences small regional differences in climates that grade inconspicuously into each other. The basic gradient for most climatic characteristics is along a line from north to south. Both mean annual temperature and precipitation exhibit fairly minor gradients along this line.
Mean January minimum temperature follows the north-to-south gradient. However, mean July maximum temperature shows hardly any geographic variation in the region. Mean July maximum temperatures have a range of only two to three degrees across the region.
Mean annual precipitation varies along the same gradient as temperature – lower annual precipitation in the north, higher in the south. Seasonality in precipitation is very pronounced due to strong continental influences. June precipitation, for example, averages four to five times greater than January precipitation.
During years when precipitation is normal, moisture is stored in the soil profile during the winter and early spring, when evaporation and transpiration are low. During the summer months the loss of water by evaporation and transpiration is high, and if rainfall fails to occur at frequent intervals, drought will result. Drought directly influences ecological communities by limiting water supplies, especially at times of high temperatures and high evaporation rates. Drought indirectly affects ecological communities by increasing plant and animal susceptibility to the probability and severity of fire. Frequent fires encourage the development of grass/forb dominated communities and understories.
Superimposed upon the basic MLRA climatic patterns are local topographic influences that create topoclimatic, or microclimatic variations. For example, air drainage at nighttime may produce temperatures several degrees lower in valley bottoms than on side slopes. At critical times during the year, this phenomenon may produce later spring or earlier fall freezes in valley bottoms. Slope orientation is an important topographic influence on climate. Summits and south-and-west-facing slopes are regularly warmer and drier, supporting more grass dominated communities than adjacent north- and-east-facing slopes that are cooler and moister that support more woody dominated communities. Finally, the climate within a canopied forest ecological site is measurably different from the climate of the more open grassland or savanna ecological sites.
Source:
University of Missouri Climate Center - http://climate.missouri.edu/climate.php;
Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin, United States Department of Agriculture Handbook 296 - http://soils.usda.gov/survey/geography/mlra/
Table 3. Representative climatic features
| Frost-free period (characteristic range) | 137-151 days |
|---|---|
| Freeze-free period (characteristic range) | 167-180 days |
| Precipitation total (characteristic range) | 991-1,041 mm |
| Frost-free period (actual range) | 133-159 days |
| Freeze-free period (actual range) | 167-185 days |
| Precipitation total (actual range) | 965-1,041 mm |
| Frost-free period (average) | 144 days |
| Freeze-free period (average) | 174 days |
| Precipitation total (average) | 1,016 mm |
Figure 3. Monthly precipitation range
Figure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range
Figure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range
Figure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 8. Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
-
(1) CHILLICOTHE 2S [USC00231580], Chillicothe, MO
-
(2) KEOSAUQUA [USC00134389], Keosauqua, IA
-
(3) UNIONVILLE [USC00238523], Unionville, MO
-
(4) OSCEOLA [USC00136316], Osceola, IA
Influencing water features
The water features of this upland ecological site include evapotranspiration, surface runoff, and drainage. Each water balance component fluctuates to varying extents from year-to-year. Evapotranspiration remains the most constant. Precipitation and drainage are highly variable between years. Seasonal variability differs for each water component. Precipitation generally occurs as single day events. Evapotranspiration is lowest in the winter and peaks in the summer. Water stored as ice and snow decreases drainage and surface runoff rates throughout the winter and increases these fluxes in the spring. The surface runoff pulse is greatly influenced by extreme events. Conversion to cropland or other high intensities land uses tends to increase runoff, but also decreases evapotranspiration. Depending on the situation, this might increase groundwater discharge, and decrease baseflow in receiving streams.
Soil features
These soils have no major rooting restriction. The soils were formed under woodland vegetation, and have thin, light-colored surface horizons. Parent material is till. They have loam surface layers, with dense subsoils that are mainly clay loam. These soils are not affected by seasonal wetness. Soils in this exposed aspect ecological site typically have thinner surface horizons relative to similar soils on protected aspects (Steele, 2011). Soil series associated with this site include Brevator, Lindley, and Winnegan. Plainfield soils are also included in this ecological site although they are sandier than the ecological site concept.
The accompanying picture of the Winnegan series shows a thin surface horizon overlying the brown clayey till. Threads and filaments of calcium carbonate are below about 1 meter in this profile, and are typical in soils of this ecological site. Picture courtesy of Amber Steele USGS; scale is in centimeters.
Figure 9. Winnegan series
Table 4. Representative soil features
| Parent material |
(1)
Till
|
|---|---|
| Surface texture |
(1) Loam (2) Clay loam (3) Silt loam |
| Family particle size |
(1) Clayey |
| Drainage class | Moderately well drained to well drained |
| Permeability class | Slow |
| Surface fragment cover <=3" | 0 – 4% |
| Surface fragment cover >3" | 0 – 1% |
| Available water capacity (0-101.6cm) |
12.7 – 15.24 cm |
| Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-101.6cm) |
0% |
| Electrical conductivity (0-101.6cm) |
0 – 2 mmhos/cm |
| Sodium adsorption ratio (0-101.6cm) |
0 |
| Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-101.6cm) |
4.5 – 6.5 |
| Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified) |
1 – 10% |
| Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified) |
0 – 4% |
Ecological dynamics
Information contained in this section was developed using historical data, professional experience, field reviews, and scientific studies. The information is representative of very complex vegetational communities. Not all scenarios or plants are included or discussed. Key indicator plants, animals and ecological processes are described to help guide land management decisions. Plant communities will differ across the MLRA because of the naturally occurring variability in weather, soils, and aspect. The Reference Plant Community is not necessarily the management goal. The biological processes on this site are complex. Therefore, representative values are presented in a land management context. The species lists are representative and are not botanical descriptions of all species occurring, or potentially occurring, on this site. They are not intended to cover every situation or the full range of conditions, species, and responses for the site.
The reference plant community is woodland dominated by an overstory of white oak (Quercus alba) and black oak (Quercus velutina). This woodland type has a moderate canopy closure (50 to 80 percent), with an open understory and a dense, diverse herbaceous ground flora. Historically, white oak dominated the canopy, along with black oak and occasional hickories, bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) and post oak (Quercus stellata). Woodlands are distinguished from forest, by their relatively open understory, and the presence of sun-loving ground flora species (MDC, 2006; Nelson, 2010).
Fire played an important role in the maintenance of these systems. While these ecological sites normally occurred back from the prairie edge, they typically burned at least once every 5 to 10 years. These periodic fires kept woodlands open, removed the litter, and stimulated the growth and flowering of the grasses and forbs (Frost 1996). During fire free intervals, woody understory species increased and the herbaceous understory diminished. The return of fire would open the woodlands up again and stimulate the abundant ground flora.
Today, this community has either been cleared and converted to pasture, or has grown denser in the absence of fire. Most occurrences today exhibit canopy closure of 80 to 100 percent. In addition, the sub-canopy and understory layers are better developed. Black oak and hickory (Carya sp.) now share dominance with white oak and there are considerably more saplings in the understory. Under these denser, more shaded conditions, the original sun-loving ground flora has diminished in diversity and cover. While some woodland species persist in the ground flora, many have been replaced by more shade-tolerant species (Steele et al. 2013).
In the long term absence of fire, woody species, especially hickory, hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) and gooseberry (Ribes sp.) encroach into these woodlands. Once established, these woody plants can quickly fill the existing understory increasing shade levels, greatly diminishing ground flora. Opening the canopy, removing the younger understory and applying prescribed fire have proven to be effective restoration means.
Uncontrolled domestic grazing has also impacted these communities, further diminishing the diversity of native plants and introducing species that are tolerant of grazing, such as coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), gooseberry, and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia). Grazed sites also have a more open understory. In addition, soil compaction and soil erosion related to over grazing can be a problem and lower site productivity.
This ecological site, if managed properly, can be a source for timber products. Most areas on this ecological site have been repeatedly logged and high graded. Partial selective cutting will perpetuate the overly dense, shaded conditions of current stands. Even-age management, using clearcut, shelterwood or seed tree harvest systems and prescribed fire can restore the more open structure and diversity of ground flora species.
Managed areas show an exceptional resiliency and production. Characteristic plants in the ground flora can be used to gauge the restoration potential of a stand along with remnant open-grown old-age trees, and tree height growth. This type of management can provide timber products, watershed protection, wildlife habitat, and potential native forage.
Finally, on some forested sites in the northern part of the MLRA, invasive non-native species of earthworms (suborder Lumbricina) are beginning to have broad effects on the nutrient cycles in temperate forests. These earthworms increase the cycling and leaching of nutrients by breaking up decaying organic matter and spreading it into the soil. Temperate forests rely on thick layers of decaying organic matter for growth and nutrition. The invasive earthworm presence and activity is diminishing the diversity of native plants in these environments. This change in the plant diversity directly affects the other organisms of the environment and often leads to increased invasions of exotic species as well as overall forest decline. Restoration to a reference state under these conditions will be more difficult if not dramatically reduced or impossible (Hendrix et al. 2006; Nuzzo et al. 2009).
A State and Transition Model Diagram is depicted in Figure 1. Detailed descriptions of each state, transition, plant community, and pathway follow the model. This model is based on available experimental research, field observations, professional consensus, and interpretations. It is likely to change as knowledge increases. The diagram suggests some pathways that the vegetation on this site might take. There may be other states not shown on the diagram. This information is intended to show what might happen in a given set of circumstances. It does not mean that this would happen the same way in every instance. Local professional guidance should always be sought before pursuing a treatment scenario.
State and transition model
Figure 10. State and transition model for this ecological site
More interactive model formats are also available.
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More interactive model formats are also available.
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Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text
Ecosystem states
States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference
The reference state is dominated by white oak associated with black oak and other mixed hardwoods. Maximum tree age is likely 150 to 300 years. Periodic disturbances from fire, wind or ice maintain the dominance of white oak by opening up the canopy and allowing more light for white oak reproduction. Long disturbance-free periods allowed an increase in more shade tolerant species such as hop hornbeam and hickory. Two community phases are recognized in this state, with shifts between phases based on disturbance frequency. The reference state is very rare throughout the MLRA. Many sites have been converted to grassland (State 4). Others have been subject to repeated, high-graded timber harvests coupled with domestic livestock grazing (State 5). Fire suppression has resulted in increased canopy density, which has affected the abundance and diversity of ground flora. Some reference sites have been managed for timber harvest, resulting in a timber managed woodland (State 2) or if prescribed fire has been maintained or introduced (State 3) as a fire managed woodland.
Dominant plant species
-
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
red hickory (Carya ovalis), tree
-
fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), shrub
-
hophornbeam (Ostrya), shrub
-
hairy woodland brome (Bromus pubescens), other herbaceous
-
hairy sunflower (Helianthus hirsutus), other herbaceous
Community 1.1
White Oak – Black Oak/Aromatic Sumac/ Woodland Brome – Hairy Sunflower
Figure 11. Reference woodland at Rudolf Bennitt State Wildlife Area near Clark, Missouri - photo from MDC
This phase has an overstory that is dominated by white oak and black oak with hickory and post oak also present. This woodland community has a two-tiered structure with an open understory and a dense, diverse herbaceous ground flora. Periodic disturbances including fire, ice and wind create canopy gaps, allowing white oak and black oak to successfully reproduce and remain in the canopy.
Forest overstory. White oak and black oak dominate with scattered hickory and post oak.
Forest understory. The understory layer is a dense native forb and grass ground layer with scattered shrubs.
Dominant plant species
-
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), shrub
-
hairy woodland brome (Bromus pubescens), other herbaceous
-
hairy sunflower (Helianthus hirsutus), other herbaceous
Table 5. Ground cover
| Tree foliar cover | 1-2% |
|---|---|
| Shrub/vine/liana foliar cover | 0.10-0.99% |
| Grass/grasslike foliar cover | 0.10-0.99% |
| Forb foliar cover | 0.1-2.0% |
| Non-vascular plants | 0% |
| Biological crusts | 0% |
| Litter | 50-95% |
| Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0.0-0.1% |
| Surface fragments >3" | 0.0-0.1% |
| Bedrock | 0% |
| Water | 0% |
| Bare ground | 0.01-2.00% |
Table 6. Soil surface cover
| Tree basal cover | 0% |
|---|---|
| Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 0% |
| Grass/grasslike basal cover | 0% |
| Forb basal cover | 0% |
| Non-vascular plants | 0% |
| Biological crusts | 0% |
| Litter | 0.2-6.0% |
| Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0% |
| Surface fragments >3" | 0% |
| Bedrock | 0% |
| Water | 0% |
| Bare ground | 0% |
Table 7. Woody ground cover
| Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) | – |
|---|---|
| Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) | – |
| Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) | 0-2% |
| Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) | 0-2% |
| Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) | 0-2% |
| Tree snags** (hard***) | – |
| Tree snags** (soft***) | – |
| Tree snag count** (hard***) | 0-25 per hectare |
| Tree snag count** (hard***) | 0 per hectare |
* Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 8. Canopy structure (% cover)
| Height Above Ground (m) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| <0.15 | 1-5% | 1-2% | 2-10% | 5-50% |
| >0.15 <= 0.3 | 2-25% | 0-25% | 0-2% | 5-75% |
| >0.3 <= 0.6 | 2-25% | 0-5% | 0-2% | 2-50% |
| >0.6 <= 1.4 | 0-5% | 0-10% | 0% | 0-2% |
| >1.4 <= 4 | 1-50% | 0-5% | 0% | 0% |
| >4 <= 12 | 0-50% | 0% | 0% | 0% |
| >12 <= 24 | 2-75% | 0% | 0% | 0% |
| >24 <= 37 | 0-95% | 0% | 0% | 0% |
| >37 | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% |
Community 1.2
White Oak-Black Oak-Hickory/Eastern Hop Hornbeam – Aromatic Sumac/Woodland Brome – Hairy Sunflower
This phase is similar to community phase 1.1 but oak and hickory densities are increasing due to longer periods of fire suppression. Displacement of some grasses and forbs may be occurring due to shading and competition from the increased densities of oak and hickory saplings in the understory.
Forest overstory. The overstory of this community phase is a mixture of white oak and black oak, with increasing densities of hickory and other more shade tolerant species.
Forest understory. This woodland community has a multi-tiered structure due to lack of disturbance activities. Ground cover densities are decreasing due increasing overstory cover.
Dominant plant species
-
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
red hickory (Carya ovalis), tree
-
hophornbeam (Ostrya), shrub
-
fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), shrub
-
hairy woodland brome (Bromus pubescens), other herbaceous
-
hairy sunflower (Helianthus hirsutus), other herbaceous
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
This pathway results from the absence of disturbance allowing more shade tolerant species such as eastern hop hornbeam, hickories, white ash and others increase in importance and add structural diversity to the system. Some displacement of grasses and forbs may be occurring due to shading and competition from the increased densities of hickories and oaks
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
This pathway results from disturbance intervals such as fire that are increasing and occur more than once every 10 years. Over time, these disturbance events result in a community phase transition back to the phase 1.1.
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Burning | |
|---|---|
| Forest Stand Improvement |
State 2
Timber Managed Woodland
This state develops from mixed oak woodlands, which over time, increase in canopy cover, eventually transitioning into forest-like communities. These woodlands tend to be rather dense, with a higher developed understory but a more under developed ground flora. Thinning can increase overall tree vigor and improve and control understory density. Continual timber management, depending on the practices used, should maintain this state. Over time white oak will become less dominant with black oak increasing. With cessation of harvesting and no other management inputs this community phase will slowly increase in more shade tolerant species such as hickories, white ash and maple and transition to community phase 2.2. Over time white oak may become less dominant. Re-initiation of harvesting and other forest management activities will transition this community phase back to community phase 2.1. Repeated, high-grading timber harvests coupled with introduction of uncontrolled domestic livestock grazing will transition this state to state 5, High-Graded/Grazed Woodland. This state can be restored to a reference state by modifying or eliminating timber harvests, extending rotations, incorporating selective thinning, and re-introducing prescribed fire. (See Ecological Dynamics section for caution on sites with invasive non-native species of earthworms)
Dominant plant species
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
-
red hickory (Carya ovalis), tree
-
common serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), shrub
-
hazelnut (Corylus), shrub
-
aster (Aster), other herbaceous
-
Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica), other herbaceous
Community 2.1
Black Oak – White Oak /Serviceberry – Hazelnut / Aster – Pennsylvania Sedge
Figure 12. Timber managed site with recent harvest (notice stump in foreground) - photo from MDC
These woodlands tend to be rather dense, with a higher developed understory but a more under developed ground flora. Thinning can increase overall tree vigor and improve and control understory density. Continual timber management, depending on the practices used, should maintain this state. Over time white oak will become less dominant. Canopy cover ranges from 70 to 85 percent. Most stands are 50 to 80 years of age.
Forest overstory. Black oak and white oak are common overstory species along with an hickory. Canopy levels can approach 90 percent.
Forest understory. A multi-layered understory is present. Due to increased shading, the ground flora is under developed.
Dominant plant species
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
-
common serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), shrub
-
hazelnut (Corylus), shrub
-
aster (Aster), other herbaceous
-
Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica), other herbaceous
Community 2.2
Black Oak – White Oak - Hickory/Serviceberry - Maple Saplings/ Aster – Pennsylvania Sedge
With cessation of harvesting and no other management inputs this community phase will slowly increase in more shade tolerant species such as hickories, white ash and maple. Over time white oak will become less dominant.
Dominant plant species
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
-
red hickory (Carya ovalis), tree
-
serviceberry (Amelanchier), shrub
-
aster (Aster), other herbaceous
-
Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica), other herbaceous
Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2
This pathway results in a cessation or reduction of harvesting frequencies.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1
Re-initiation of harvesting and other forest management activities will transition this community phase back to community phase 2.1.
Conservation practices
| Forest Trails and Landings | |
|---|---|
| Forest Stand Improvement |
State 3
Fire Managed Woodland
The fire managed woodland state most closely resembles the reference state. The principal difference is tree age with most canopy trees being only 50 to 90 years old. Composition and reduction in tree size are also likely altered from the reference state depending on tree selection during any previous harvest cycles. Without a regular fire regime or harvesting, this community phase will slowly increase in more shade tolerant species such as hickories and other more shade tolerant species and transition to community phase 3.2. Over time white oak may become less dominant. Repeated, high-grading timber harvests coupled with introduction of uncontrolled domestic livestock grazing and cessation of prescribed fire will transition this state to state 5, High-Graded/Grazed Woodland. This state can be restored to a reference state by modifying timber harvests, extending rotations, incorporating selective thinning, and possibly increasing fire frequencies. (See Ecological Dynamics section for caution on sites with invasive non-native species of earthworms)
Dominant plant species
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
-
red hickory (Carya ovalis), tree
-
coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
-
black cherry (Prunus serotina), shrub
-
hairy woodland brome (Bromus pubescens), other herbaceous
Community 3.1
Black Oak – White Oak – Hickory/ Buckbrush/ Woodland Brome
Figure 13. Fire managed woodland at Union Ridge Conservation Area near Green City, Missouri - photo from MDC
This is a fire managed phase. Fire frequencies occur at a 5 to 10 year interval usually preceeding a timber harvest. Logging activites are removing higher volumes of white oak causing a decrease in white oak in the canopy and an increase in black oak.
Forest overstory. Black oak and white oak dominate with occasional hickories. Canopy cover ranges from 60 percent to 80 percent.
Forest understory. Dense rich ground cover dominated by forbs and shrubs.
Dominant plant species
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
-
red hickory (Carya ovalis), tree
-
coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
-
hairy woodland brome (Bromus pubescens), other herbaceous
Community 3.2
Black Oak – White Oak – Hickory/Oak Saplings – Black Cherry/ Woodland Brome
In the long term absence of fire, woody species, especially oak and hickory saplings, black cherry and hornbeam encroach into the understory of these woodlands. Hickory species will increase in the overstory.
Dominant plant species
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
-
red hickory (Carya ovalis), tree
-
black cherry (Prunus serotina), shrub
-
hairy woodland brome (Bromus pubescens), other herbaceous
Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2
This pathway results in reduced fire frequencies and logging activity. No disturbance periods can exceed 10 years.
Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1
This pathway results in increased prescribed fire frequencies and the reinstating of selective thinning.
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Burning | |
|---|---|
| Forest Stand Improvement |
State 4
Grassland
Conversion of woodland to planted, non-native cool season grasses and legumes has been common. Without proper grassland management these ecological sites are challenging to maintain in a healthy, productive state. With over grazing and cessation of active pasture management, tall fescue, white clover and multi-flora rose will increase in density. Over a long period of time with no grazing, phase 4.2 will eventually transition to a phase that resembles community phase 5.2, Black Oak – Hickory/Black Cherry – Buckbrush – Gooseberry – Multi-flora Rose/ Black Snakeroot – Geranium. In some instances, this state has been converted to native warm season grasses, primarily big bluestem, switchgrass, and Indian grass or pure stands of single species. These sites are typically converted through a federal cost share program such as the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) or the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). Some sites are associated with an active rotational grazing system. Without active management with prescribed fire and grassland management these sites will transition to phase 5.2.
Dominant plant species
-
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
-
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), other herbaceous
-
white clover (Trifolium repens), other herbaceous
Community 4.1
Cool Season Grasses – Legumes
Figure 14. Well-managed cool season pasture near Lake Wapello State Park, Iowa - photo from MDC
This phase is a well managed grassland, composed of non-native cool season grasses and legumes. Grazing and haying is occurring. The effects of long-term liming on soil pH, and calcium and magnesium content, is most evident in this phase. Studies show that these soils have higher pH and higher base status in soil horizons as much as two feet below the surface, relative to poorly managed grassland (phase 4.2) and to woodland communities (where liming is not practiced).
Community 4.2
Tall fescue – White Clover/Multi-flora Rose
Figure 15. Cool season pasture showing weedy invasion due to poor management near Bloomfield, Iowa - photo from MDC
This phase is the result of poor grassland management. Over grazing and inadequate or no fertility application has allowed tall fescue, multi-flora rose, thistle and other weedy species to increase in cover and density reducing overall forage quality and site productivity. White clovers such as ladino and alsike will decrease or go away with no fertilization and overgrazing although Dutch white clover will leave last. Soil pH and bases such as calcium and magnesium are lower, relative to well-managed pastures (Phase 4.1).
Dominant plant species
-
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
-
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), other herbaceous
-
white clover (Trifolium repens), other herbaceous
Community 4.3
Native Warm Season Grasses
Figure 16. Native grasses and legumes on CRP land in southern Iowa - photo from NRCS
In some instances, this state has been converted to native warm season grasses, primarily big bluestem, switchgrass, and Indian grass or pure stands of single species. These sites are typically converted through a federal cost share program such as the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) or the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). Some sites are associated with an active rotational grazing system.
Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2
This pathway results from over grazing and cessation of active pasture management.
Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1
To return to Community Phase 4.1, brush management, grassland seeding, rotational grazing, and integrated pest management will be needed.
Conservation practices
| Brush Management | |
|---|---|
| Forage and Biomass Planting | |
| Integrated Pest Management (IPM) |
State 5
High-Graded/Grazed Woodland
Reference or managed forested states subjected to repeated, high-grading timber harvests and uncontrolled cattle grazing transition to this degraded state. This state exhibits an over-abundance of hickory and other less economically desirable tree species and weedy understory species such as buckbrush, gooseberry, poison ivy and multi-flora rose. The vegetation offers little nutritional value for cattle, and excessive livestock stocking damages tree boles, degrades understory species composition and results in soil compaction and accelerated erosion and runoff. Browsing by goats using good rotational management can open up the shrub layer, eliminate many of the weedy species and increase both native herbaceous vegetation and may induce regeneration of oak and hickory species. Cessation of active logging and exclusion of livestock from sites in this state will create an idle phase that experiences an increase in black cherry and Ohio buckeye in the understory layer. Transition back to either an even-age managed or uneven-age managed forest will required dynamic and sustained forest stand improvements, cessation of grazing, and selective thinning of overstory and understory canopies. (See Ecological Dynamics section for caution on sites with invasive non-native species of earthworms)
Dominant plant species
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
red hickory (Carya ovalis), tree
-
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
-
coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
-
Canadian blacksnakeroot (Sanicula canadensis), other herbaceous
-
geranium (Geranium), other herbaceous
Community 5.1
Black Oak-Hickory/Hickory saplings-Gooseberry-Multiflora Rose/Black Snakeroot-Geranium
Figure 17. Grazed woodland with open understory
Due to high-grade logging and uncontrolled grazing, this community phase exhibits an over-abundance of hickory and other less economically desirable tree species and weedy understory species such as buckbrush, gooseberry, poison ivy and multi-flora rose. The understory vegetation offers little nutritional value for cattle, and excessive livestock stocking damages tree boles, degrades understory species composition and results in soil compaction and accelerated erosion and runoff.
Forest overstory. Canopy exhibits an over-abundance of hickory and other less economically desirable tree species such as black oak.
Forest understory. Over time, understory species such as buckbrush, gooseberry, poison ivy and multi-flora rose increase in density.
Dominant plant species
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
red hickory (Carya ovalis), tree
-
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
-
Canadian blacksnakeroot (Sanicula canadensis), other herbaceous
-
geranium (Geranium), other herbaceous
Community 5.2
Black Oak-Hickory/Black Cherry-Buckbrush-Gooseberry-Multiflora Rose/Black Snakeroot-Geranium
Figure 18. Lamson Woods State Preserve showing a high-graded formerly grazed woodland near Fairfield, Iowa - photo from MDC
Cessation of active logging and reduction in grazing intensity will create an idle phase that experiences an increase in black cherry and Ohio buckeye and weedy species such as buckbrush and gooseberry in the understory layer.
Forest overstory. Canopy exhibits an over-abundance of hickory and other less economically desirable tree species such as black oak.
Forest understory. Understory densities levels are increasing. Species such as black cherry, Ohio buckeye, buckbrush, gooseberry, poison ivy and multi-flora rose are common.
Dominant plant species
-
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
-
red hickory (Carya ovalis), tree
-
black cherry (Prunus serotina), shrub
-
coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
-
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
-
Canadian blacksnakeroot (Sanicula canadensis), other herbaceous
-
geranium (Geranium), other herbaceous
Pathway 5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2
This pathway results from cessation of active logging and exclusion of livestock or reduction in grazing intensity.
Pathway 5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.1
This pathway results in a return to logging activity and increased grazing intensities and frequencies.
Transition 1A
State 1 to 2
Fire suppression and forest timber management will result in a transition to community phase 2.1.
Transition 1B
State 1 to 3
Prescribed fire and forest timber management will result in a transition to community phase 3.1.
Transition 1C
State 1 to 4
Clearing, pasture planting and grassland management will result in a transition to community phase 4.1.
Transition 1D
State 1 to 5
High grade logging and uncontrolled grazing will result in a transition to community phase 5.1.
Restoration pathway 1B
State 2 to 1
This state can be restored to a reference state by modifying or eliminating timber harvests, extending rotations, incorporating selective thinning, and re-introducing prescribed fire.
Conservation practices
| Forest Stand Improvement | |
|---|---|
| Prescribed Grazing |
Transition 2A
State 2 to 3
This state will tansition to a fire managed woodland state by incorporating selective thinning and re-introducing prescribed fire.
Transition 2B
State 2 to 5
This state will transition to a high-graded/grazed woodland state with high-grade logging and allowing uncontrolled grazing.
Restoration pathway 1A
State 3 to 1
This state can be restored to a reference state by modifying or eliminating timber harvests, extending rotations, and incorporating selective thinning.
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Burning | |
|---|---|
| Forest Stand Improvement |
Transition 3A
State 3 to 2
This state will transition to a timber managed state by modifying timber harvests and suppressing prescribed fire.
Transition 3B
State 3 to 5
This state will transition to a high-graded/grazed woodland state with high-grade logging and allowing uncontrolled grazing.
Transition 4A
State 4 to 5
This state will transition to a high-graded/grazed woodland idle phase with long term succession and little to no grazing.
Transition 5C
State 5 to 2
This state will transition to a timber managed woodland state with timber management, forest stand improvement, and suppression of grazing.
Transition 5B
State 5 to 3
This state will transition to a fire managed woodland state with timber management, forest stand improvement, suppression of grazing and prescribed burning.
Transition 5A
State 5 to 4
This state will transition to a grassland state with clearing, pasture planting, and grassland managment.
Additional community tables
Table 9. Community 1.1 forest overstory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (m) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (cm) | Basal area (square m/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Tree
|
|||||||
| white oak | QUAL | Quercus alba | Native | – | 2–95 | 12.7–68.6 | – |
| northern red oak | QURU | Quercus rubra | Native | – | 5–25 | 33–53.3 | – |
| black oak | QUVE | Quercus velutina | Native | – | 10–25 | 33–43.2 | – |
| shagbark hickory | CAOV2 | Carya ovata | Native | – | 2–10 | 12.7–27.9 | – |
| post oak | QUST | Quercus stellata | Native | – | 5–10 | – | – |
| bur oak | QUMA2 | Quercus macrocarpa | Native | – | 5–10 | – | – |
Table 10. Community 1.1 forest understory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (m) | Canopy cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
| Pennsylvania sedge | CAPE6 | Carex pensylvanica | Native | 0–0.3 | 2–10 | |
| poverty oatgrass | DASP2 | Danthonia spicata | Native | 0–0.2 | 0–5 | |
| parasol sedge | CAUM4 | Carex umbellata | Native | – | 1–2 | |
| Virginia wildrye | ELVI3 | Elymus virginicus | Native | – | 1–2 | |
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | Native | – | 1–2 | |
| eastern bottlebrush grass | ELHY | Elymus hystrix | Native | 0–0.9 | 0.1–1 | |
| rock muhly | MUSO | Muhlenbergia sobolifera | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | Native | 0–2.4 | 0.1–1 | |
| hairy woodland brome | BRPU6 | Bromus pubescens | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–1 | |
| Heller's rosette grass | DIOL | Dichanthelium oligosanthes | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| Ravenel's rosette grass | DIRA | Dichanthelium ravenelii | Native | 0–0.3 | 0.1–1 | |
| hairy wildrye | ELVI | Elymus villosus | Native | 0.3–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| nodding fescue | FESU3 | Festuca subverticillata | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| slimleaf panicgrass | DILI2 | Dichanthelium linearifolium | Native | 0–0.2 | 0.1–1 | |
| fuzzy wuzzy sedge | CAHI6 | Carex hirsutella | Native | 0–0.3 | 0.1–1 | |
| oval-leaf sedge | CACE | Carex cephalophora | Native | 0–0.3 | 0.1–1 | |
| eastern woodland sedge | CABL | Carex blanda | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–0.1 | |
| Muhlenberg's sedge | CAMU4 | Carex muehlenbergii | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–0.1 | |
| Bosc's panicgrass | DIBO2 | Dichanthelium boscii | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–0.1 | |
|
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
| shrubby lespedeza | LEFR5 | Lespedeza frutescens | Native | 0–0.3 | 1–50 | |
| nakedflower ticktrefoil | DENU4 | Desmodium nudiflorum | Native | 0–0.3 | 10–25 | |
| hairy sunflower | HEHI2 | Helianthus hirsutus | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–25 | |
| elmleaf goldenrod | SOUL2 | Solidago ulmifolia | Native | 0–0.6 | 5–10 | |
| American hogpeanut | AMBR2 | Amphicarpaea bracteata | Native | 0–0.2 | 1–5 | |
| perplexed ticktrefoil | DEPE80 | Desmodium perplexum | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–5 | |
| pointedleaf ticktrefoil | DEGL5 | Desmodium glutinosum | Native | 0–0.3 | 0.1–2 | |
| panicledleaf ticktrefoil | DEPA6 | Desmodium paniculatum | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–2 | |
| slender lespedeza | LEVI7 | Lespedeza virginica | Native | – | 1–2 | |
| eastern beebalm | MOBR2 | Monarda bradburiana | Native | – | 1–2 | |
| Canadian blacksnakeroot | SACA15 | Sanicula canadensis | Native | – | 1–2 | |
| eastern purple coneflower | ECPU | Echinacea purpurea | Native | – | 1–2 | |
| rue anemone | THTH2 | Thalictrum thalictroides | Native | 0–0.3 | 0.1–1 | |
| Baldwin's ironweed | VEBA | Vernonia baldwinii | Native | 0–1.2 | 0.1–1 | |
| Drummond's aster | SYDR | Symphyotrichum drummondii | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–1 | |
| smooth blue aster | SYLA3 | Symphyotrichum laeve | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| calico aster | SYLA4 | Symphyotrichum lateriflorum | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| widowsfrill | SIST | Silene stellata | Native | 0–0.9 | 0.1–1 | |
| zigzag goldenrod | SOFL2 | Solidago flexicaulis | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| wild blue phlox | PHDI5 | Phlox divaricata | Native | 0–0.2 | 0.1–1 | |
| American lopseed | PHLE5 | Phryma leptostachya | Native | 0–0.2 | 0–1 | |
| Virginia groundcherry | PHVI5 | Physalis virginiana | Native | 0–0.2 | 0–1 | |
| clustered blacksnakeroot | SAOD | Sanicula odorata | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| flowering spurge | EUCO10 | Euphorbia corollata | Native | 0–0.3 | 0.1–1 | |
| feathery false lily of the valley | MARA7 | Maianthemum racemosum | Native | 0–0.3 | 0.1–1 | |
| American ginseng | PAQU | Panax quinquefolius | Native | 0–0.2 | 0.1–1 | |
| Virginia strawberry | FRVI | Fragaria virginiana | Native | 0–0.3 | 0.1–1 | |
| shining bedstraw | GACO3 | Galium concinnum | Native | 0–0.2 | 0.1–1 | |
| stiff tickseed | COPA10 | Coreopsis palmata | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–1 | |
| bastard toadflax | COUM | Comandra umbellata | Native | 0–0.2 | 0.1–1 | |
| western rockjasmine | ANOC2 | Androsace occidentalis | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–1 | |
| Parlin's pussytoes | ANPA9 | Antennaria parlinii | Native | 0–0.2 | 0–1 | |
| Canadian milkvetch | ASCA11 | Astragalus canadensis | Native | 0–0.3 | 0.1–1 | |
| smooth yellow false foxglove | AUFL | Aureolaria flava | Native | 0.3–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| soft agrimony | AGPU | Agrimonia pubescens | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| beaked agrimony | AGRO3 | Agrimonia rostellata | Native | 0–0.3 | 0.1–1 | |
| bluejacket | TROH | Tradescantia ohiensis | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–0.1 | |
| fourleaf milkweed | ASQU | Asclepias quadrifolia | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–0.1 | |
| Indianhemp | APCA | Apocynum cannabinum | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–0.1 | |
| Virginia snakeroot | ARSE3 | Aristolochia serpentaria | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–0.1 | |
| tall tickseed | COTR4 | Coreopsis tripteris | Native | 0.3–0.6 | 0–0.1 | |
| white avens | GECA7 | Geum canadense | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–0.1 | |
| beggarslice | HAVI2 | Hackelia virginiana | Native | 0–0.2 | 0–0.1 | |
| wild quinine | PAIN3 | Parthenium integrifolium | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–0.1 | |
| button eryngo | ERYU | Eryngium yuccifolium | Native | 0.6–1.8 | 0–0.1 | |
| wholeleaf rosinweed | SIIN2 | Silphium integrifolium | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–0.1 | |
| narrowleaf mountainmint | PYTE | Pycnanthemum tenuifolium | Native | 0.3–0.6 | 0–0.1 | |
| manyray aster | SYAN2 | Symphyotrichum anomalum | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–0.1 | |
| fringeleaf wild petunia | RUHU | Ruellia humilis | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–0.1 | |
| pinnate prairie coneflower | RAPI | Ratibida pinnata | Native | 0–0.2 | 0–0.1 | |
| smooth violet prairie aster | SYTU2 | Symphyotrichum turbinellum | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–0.1 | |
|
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
| fragrant sumac | RHAR4 | Rhus aromatica | Native | 0–2.4 | 2–50 | |
| New Jersey tea | CEAM | Ceanothus americanus | Native | – | 5–20 | |
| shrubby St. Johnswort | HYPR | Hypericum prolificum | Native | 0–0.3 | 2–5 | |
| coralberry | SYOR | Symphoricarpos orbiculatus | Native | 0–0.9 | 0.1–2 | |
| northern dewberry | RUFL | Rubus flagellaris | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–2 | |
| American hazelnut | COAM3 | Corylus americana | Native | 0–2.4 | 0.1–2 | |
| Carolina rose | ROCA4 | Rosa carolina | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–0.1 | |
| blackhaw | VIPR | Viburnum prunifolium | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–0.1 | |
| stiff dogwood | COFO | Cornus foemina | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–0.1 | |
|
Tree
|
||||||
| hophornbeam | OSVI | Ostrya virginiana | Native | 0–4.9 | 0.1–25 | |
| shingle oak | QUIM | Quercus imbricaria | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–2 | |
| black cherry | PRSE2 | Prunus serotina | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| black hickory | CATE9 | Carya texana | Native | 0–2.4 | 0.1–1 | |
| common persimmon | DIVI5 | Diospyros virginiana | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| common serviceberry | AMAR3 | Amelanchier arborea | Native | 0–0.6 | 0.1–1 | |
| bitternut hickory | CACO15 | Carya cordiformis | Native | 0–0.6 | 0–0.1 | |
| eastern redcedar | JUVI | Juniperus virginiana | Native | 0–4.9 | 0–0.1 | |
|
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
| Virginia creeper | PAQU2 | Parthenocissus quinquefolia | Native | 0–0.3 | 1–5 | |
| eastern poison ivy | TORA2 | Toxicodendron radicans | Native | 0–4.9 | 0.1–2 | |
| frost grape | VIVU | Vitis vulpina | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–1 | |
| American bittersweet | CESC | Celastrus scandens | Native | 0–0.3 | 0–1 | |
Table 11. Community 1.2 forest overstory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (m) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (cm) | Basal area (square m/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Tree
|
|||||||
| white oak | QUAL | Quercus alba | Native | – | 40–70 | – | – |
| black oak | QUVE | Quercus velutina | Native | – | 20–40 | – | – |
| mockernut hickory | CATO6 | Carya tomentosa | Native | – | 10–30 | – | – |
| shagbark hickory | CAOV2 | Carya ovata | Native | – | 10–30 | – | – |
| bur oak | QUMA2 | Quercus macrocarpa | Native | – | 5–10 | – | – |
| post oak | QUST | Quercus stellata | Native | – | 5–10 | – | – |
Table 12. Community 1.2 forest understory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (m) | Canopy cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
| Virginia wildrye | ELVI3 | Elymus virginicus | Native | – | 0.1–5 | |
| rock muhly | MUSO | Muhlenbergia sobolifera | Native | – | 0.1–5 | |
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| fourleaf milkweed | ASQU | Asclepias quadrifolia | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| hairy woodland brome | BRPU6 | Bromus pubescens | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| Pennsylvania sedge | CAPE6 | Carex pensylvanica | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| parasol sedge | CAUM4 | Carex umbellata | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| eastern bottlebrush grass | ELHY | Elymus hystrix | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
|
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
| bluejacket | TROH | Tradescantia ohiensis | Native | – | 0.1–5 | |
| hairy sunflower | HEHI2 | Helianthus hirsutus | Native | – | 0.1–5 | |
| elmleaf goldenrod | SOUL2 | Solidago ulmifolia | Native | – | 1–5 | |
| slender lespedeza | LEVI7 | Lespedeza virginica | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| eastern beebalm | MOBR2 | Monarda bradburiana | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| Canadian blacksnakeroot | SACA15 | Sanicula canadensis | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| nakedflower ticktrefoil | DENU4 | Desmodium nudiflorum | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| eastern purple coneflower | ECPU | Echinacea purpurea | Native | – | 0.1–2 | |
| Culver's root | VEVI4 | Veronicastrum virginicum | Native | – | 0.1–1 | |
|
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
| fragrant sumac | RHAR4 | Rhus aromatica | Native | – | 1–5 | |
| New Jersey tea | CEAM | Ceanothus americanus | Native | – | 1–2 | |
| American hazelnut | COAM3 | Corylus americana | Native | – | 1–2 | |
|
Tree
|
||||||
| hophornbeam | OSVI | Ostrya virginiana | Native | – | 1–5 | |
| slippery elm | ULRU | Ulmus rubra | Native | – | 1–2 | |
| white ash | FRAM2 | Fraxinus americana | Native | – | 0.1–1 | |
Interpretations
Animal community
Wildlife
Wild turkey, white-tailed deer, and eastern gray squirrel depend on hard and soft mast food sources and are typical upland game species of this type.
Oaks provide hard mast; scattered shrubs provide soft mast; native legumes provide high-quality wildlife food.
Sedges and native cool-season grasses provide green browse; patchy native warm-season grasses provide cover and nesting habitat; and a diversity of forbs provides a diversity and abundance of insects.
Post-burn areas can provide temporary bare-ground – herbaceous cover habitat important for turkey poults and quail chicks.
Bird species associated with mature communities include Indigo Bunting, Red-headed Woodpecker, Eastern Bluebird, Northern Bobwhite, Eastern Wood-Pewee, Broad-winged Hawk, Great-Crested Flycatcher, Summer Tanager, and Red-eyed Vireo.
Reptiles and amphibians associated with these forests include: ringed salamander, spotted salamander, marbled salamander, central newt, long-tailed salamander, dark-sided salamander, southern red-backed salamander, small-mouthed salamander, three-toed box turtle, ground skink, western worm snake, western earth snake, American toad, and eastern timber rattlesnake.
Domestic livestock:
On sites that have been converted to cool-season grasses and legumes, cattle grazing occurs along with some uncontrolled grazing in adjacent uncleared woodlands.
Hydrological functions
Most precipitation on sites in reference or well-managed timber states infiltrates the soil, and either recharges the local groundwater or moves slowly as lateral flow, surfacing in headwaters of ephemeral streams. The trees, the shrub and herbaceous understories, and the litter provide nearly 100 percent soil cover. Little or no surface runoff occurs on these sites, except for rare, high-intensity storms. These sites provide high yields of good-quality groundwater, which is released slowly into ephemeral streams over time.
In high graded woodland or poorly managed pasture states, soil compaction and reduced surface cover generally results in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Groundwater recharge is reduced. Surface runoff results in soil erosion, which degrades water quality. The rapid release of runoff into ephemeral streams increases the risk of downstream flooding, and shortens the time when ephemeral streams are active.
Recreational uses
Hunting, bird watching, horseback riding, camping, and hiking are recreational uses of this ecological site. Reference and well managed sites provide good hunting for turkey, white-tailed deer, and squirrel. Recreational uses are reduced in the heavily grazed grassland state and high-graded woodland state. In many areas of this predominantly agricultural MLRA, these sites provide the only woodlands available for recreational use.
Wood products
This ecological site is moderately productive. Timber harvesting can occur but care must be taken to maintain the integrity and character of the site.
Potential products include lumber, oak staves, pallet materials, and in some cases oak veneer (only on well managed or old growth sites).
Other information
Forestry
Management: Field measured site index values range from 42 to 73 for white oak and black oak. Timber management opportunities are good. These groups respond well to even-aged management. Create group openings of at least 2 acres. Large clearcuts should be minimized if possible to reduce impacts on wildlife and aesthetics. Uneven-aged management using single tree selection and group selection cuttings of ½ to 1 acre are other options that can be used if clear cutting is not desired or warranted. Prescribed fire is an effective management tool. Using prescribed fire as a management tool however, could have a negative impact on timber quality and should be used with caution on a particular site if timber management is the primary objective.
Limitations: Erosion is a hazard when slopes exceed 15 percent. On steep slopes greater than 35 percent, traction problems increase, and equipment use is not recommended.
Supporting information
Inventory data references
The data contained in this document is derived from analysis of inventories, ecological interpretation from field evaluations, and various reference papers and books.
Steele, Amber M.; Kabrick, John M.; Miles, Randall J. 2013. Regional and geomorphic influence on the productivity, composition, and structure of oak ecosystems in the western central hardwoods region. In: Miller, Gary W.; Schuler, Thomas M.; Gottschalk, Kurt W.; Brooks, John R.; Grushecky, Shawn T.; Spong, Ben D.; Rentch, James S., eds. Proceedings, 18th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 2012 March 26-28; Morgantown, WV; Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-117. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 80-92.
Nelson, Paul W. 2010. The Terrestrial Natural Communities of Missouri. Missouri Department of
Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri.
Yatskievych, George A. 1999/2006/2013. Flora of Missouri. Missouri Dept. of Conservation in cooperation with Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Volumes 1-3.
Sampling methods (nested plots/transects/releve)
Reference Inventory Plots:
THHISP02 Thousand Hills State Park
DAHOCA02 Dark Hollow Natural Area
RUBECA02 Rudolf Bennitt Wildlife Conservation Area
Timber Managed Woodland State Inventory Plots:
RECOCA01 Rebel’s Cove Conservation Area
HNMOCA02 Hungry Mother Conservation Area
Fire Managed Woodland State Inventory Plots:
UNRICA03 Union Ridge Conservation Area
Level 2 and reconnaissance inventory:
Concept developed from Paul Nelson’s Terrestrial Natural Communities and other works, refined with Amber Steele’s thesis
2007: Kolaks/Meinert reconnaissance at Little Lost Creek CA and Rudolph Bennitt CA
2009/10: Steele/Steele/Kabrick reconnaissance for Till Backslope thesis study site selection (Atlanta CA, Hidden Hollow CA, Hungry Mother CA, Rebel’s Cove CA, Union Ridge CA, Sugar Creek CA, others)
2014: Reconnaissance in Iowa: (Lamson Woods, Lacey Keosaqua SP. others)
2014: Reconnaissance and Tier III plot establishment in Missouri (Dark Hollow CA, Mineral Hills CA, Union Ridge CA, Thousand Hills SP, Rudolph Bennitt CA)
Type locality
| Location 1: Randolph County, MO | |
|---|---|
| Township/Range/Section | T52N R14W S36 |
| UTM zone | N |
| UTM northing | 4345191.15 |
| UTM easting | 547626.93 |
| Latitude | 39° 15′ 17″ |
| Longitude | 92° 26′ 52″ |
| General legal description | Plot RUBECA02 Rudolf Bennitt Wildlife Conservation Area |
| Location 2: Adair County, MO | |
| Township/Range/Section | T62N R15W S18 |
| UTM zone | N |
| UTM northing | 4447630.34 |
| UTM easting | 531737.44 |
| Latitude | 40° 10′ 42″ |
| Longitude | 92° 37′ 37″ |
| General legal description | Plot THHISP02 Thousand Hills State Park |
| Location 3: Sullivan County, MO | |
| Township/Range/Section | T64N R18W S28 |
| UTM zone | N |
| UTM northing | 4463745.93 |
| UTM easting | 506076.8 |
| Latitude | 40° 19′ 27″ |
| Longitude | 92° 55′ 42″ |
| General legal description | Plot DAHOCA01 Dark Hollow Natural Area Winnegan pedon |
Other references
Anderson, R.C. 1990. The historic role of fire in North American grasslands. Pp. 8-18 in S.L. Collins and L.L. Wallace (eds.). Fire in North American tallgrass prairies. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Ecological Site Information System: Soils Ecological Site Inventory-Forestland. Data (Keswick, Lindley, and Winnegan soils) accessed June 2013. Retrieved from https://esi.sc.egov.usda.gov/ESI_Forestland/pgFSWelcome.aspx.
Festervand, D.F. 1994. Soil Survey of Putnam County, Missouri. U.S. Dept. of Agric. Soil Conservation Service.
Frost, C., 1996. Pre-settlement Fire Frequency Regimes of the United States: A First Approximation. Pages 70-81, Proceedings of the 20nd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Ecosystem Management: Shifting the Paradigm from Suppression to Prescription. Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL.
Hendrix, P. F., G. H. Baker, M. A. Callaham Jr, G. A. Damoff, C. Fragoso, G. Gonzalez,
S. W. James, S. L. Lachnicht, T. Winsome and X. Zou. 2006. Invasion of exotic earthworms into ecosystems inhabited by native earthworms. Biol Invasions (2006) 8:1287–1300
Maerz, J., V. A. Nuzzo, and B. Blossey. 2009. Declines in Woodland Salamander Abundance Associated with Non-Native Earthworm and Plant Invasions. Conservation Biology, Volume 23, No. 4, 975–981
Missouri Department of Conservation, 2006. Missouri Forest and Woodland Community Profiles. Jefferson City, Missouri.
Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2002. Woodland Suitability Groups. Missouri FOTG, Section II, Soil Interpretations and Reports. 30 pgs.
Natural Resources Conservation Service. Site Index Reports. Accessed May 2014. https://esi.sc.egov.usda.gov/ESI_Forestland/pgFSWelcome.aspx
Nelson, Paul W. 2010. The Terrestrial Natural Communities of Missouri. Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri.
Nigh, Timothy A. and Walter A. Schroeder. 2002. Atlas of Missouri Ecoregions. Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri.
Nuzzo, V., J. C. Maerz, and B. Blossey. 2009. Earthworm invasion as the Driving Force Behind Plant Invasion and Community Change in Northeastern North American Forests. Conservation Biology 23: No. 4, 966–974
Steele, Amber M.; Kabrick, John M.; Miles, Randall J. 2013. Regional and geomorphic influence on the productivity, composition, and structure of oak ecosystems in the western central hardwoods region. In: Miller, Gary W.; Schuler, Thomas M.; Gottschalk, Kurt W.; Brooks, John R.; Grushecky, Shawn T.; Spong, Ben D.; Rentch, James S., eds. Proceedings, 18th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 2012 March 26-28; Morgantown, WV; Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-117. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 80-92.
United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296. 682 pgs.
Contributors
Doug Wallace
Fred Young
Approval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 7/01/2024
Acknowledgments
Missouri Department of Conservation and Missouri Department of Natural Resources personnel provided significant and helpful field and technical support in the development of this ecological site.
This site was originally approved on 07/28/2015 for publication.
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
| Author(s)/participant(s) | |
|---|---|
| Contact for lead author | |
| Date | 11/23/2024 |
| Approved by | Suzanne Mayne-Kinney |
| Approval date | |
| Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
-
Presence of water flow patterns:
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Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
-
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
-
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
-
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
-
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
-
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
-
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
-
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
-
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
-
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
-
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
-
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
-
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
-
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
-
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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