Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site R028BY028NV
SODIC TERRACE 8-10 P.Z.
Accessed: 11/24/2024
General information
Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 028B–Central Nevada Basin and Range
MLRA 28B occurs entirely in Nevada and comprises about 23,555 square miles (61,035 square kilometers). More than nine-tenths of this MLRA is federally owned. This area is in the Great Basin Section of the Basin and Range Province of the Intermontane Plateaus. It is an area of nearly level, aggraded desert basins and valleys between a series of mountain ranges trending north to south. The basins are bordered by long, gently sloping to strongly sloping alluvial fans. The mountains are uplifted fault blocks with steep sideslopes. Many of the valleys are closed basins containing sinks or playas. Elevation ranges from 4,900 to 6,550 feet (1,495 to 1,995 meters) in the valleys and basins and from 6,550 to 11,900 feet (1,995 to 3,630 meters) in the mountains.
The mountains in the southern half are dominated by andesite and basalt rocks that were formed in the Miocene and Oligocene. Paleozoic and older carbonate rocks are prominent in the mountains to the north. Scattered outcrops of older Tertiary intrusives and very young tuffaceous sediments are throughout this area. The valleys consist mostly of alluvial fill, but lake deposits are at the lowest elevations in the closed basins. The alluvial valley fill consists of cobbles, gravel, and coarse sand near the mountains in the apex of the alluvial fans. Sands, silts, and clays are on the distal ends of the fans.
The average annual precipitation ranges from 4 to 12 inches (100 to 305 millimeters) in most areas on the valley floors. Average annual precipitation in the mountains ranges from 8 to 36 inches (205 to 915 millimeters) depending on elevation. The driest period is from midsummer to midautumn. The average annual temperature is 34 to 52 degrees F (1 to 11 degrees C). The freeze-free period averages 125 days and ranges from 80 to 170 days, decreasing in length with elevation.
The dominant soil orders in this MLRA are Aridisols, Entisols, and Mollisols. The soils in the area dominantly have a mesic soil temperature regime, an aridic or xeric soil moisture regime, and mixed or carbonatic mineralogy. They generally are well drained, loamy or loamyskeletal, and shallow to very deep.
Nevada’s climate is predominantly arid, with large daily ranges of temperature, infrequent severe storms and heavy snowfall in the higher mountains. Three basic geographical factors largely influence Nevada’s climate: continentality, latitude, and elevation. The strong continental effect is expressed in the form of both dryness and large temperature variations. Nevada lies on the eastern, lee side of the Sierra Nevada Range, a massive mountain barrier that markedly influences the climate of the State. The prevailing winds are from the west, and as the warm moist air from the Pacific Ocean ascend the western slopes of the Sierra Range, the air cools, condensation occurs and most of the moisture falls as precipitation. As the air descends the eastern slope, it is warmed by compression, and very little precipitation occurs. The effects of this mountain barrier are felt not only in the West but throughout the state, as a result the lowlands of Nevada are largely desert or steppes.
The temperature regime is also affected by the blocking of the inland-moving maritime air. Nevada sheltered from maritime winds, has a continental climate with well-developed seasons and the terrain responds quickly to changes in solar heating. Nevada lies within the midlatitude belt of prevailing westerly winds which occur most of the year. These winds bring frequent changes in weather during the late fall, winter and spring months, when most of the precipitation occurs.
To the south of the mid-latitude westerlies, lies a zone of high pressure in subtropical latitudes, with a center over the Pacific Ocean. In the summer, this high-pressure belt shifts northward over the latitudes of Nevada, blocking storms from the ocean. The resulting weather is mostly clear and dry during the summer and early fall, with occasional thundershowers. The eastern portion of the state receives noteworthy summer thunderstorms generated from monsoonal moisture pushed up from the Gulf of California, known as the North American monsoon. The monsoon system peaks in August and by October the monsoon high over the Western U.S. begins to weaken and the precipitation retreats southward towards the tropics (NOAA 2004).
Ecological site concept
This site occurs on fan skirts. Slope gradients of <4 percent are typical. Elevation ranges between 5500-6500 feet.
Soils associated with this site are very deep, well drained, and are derived from mixed parent material. Soils are moderately to strongly affected by salts, typically sodium. The soil moisture regime is aridic bordering on xeric and the soil temperature regime is mesic.
The reference state is dominated by black greasewood, basin big sagebrush and basin wildrye. Production ranges from 400 to 800 pounds per acre. This ecological site occurs on landforms below where big sagebrush dominates and above where greasewood dominates, whether or not sites dominated by those species are adjacent. Additional investigation is needed to determine the specific physical/chemical soil properties that allow for this combination.
Associated sites
| R028BY010NV |
LOAMY 8-10 P.Z. |
|---|---|
| R028BY041NV |
DRY FLOODPLAIN |
| R028BY069NV |
SODIC FLAT 8-10 P.Z. |
| R028BY074NV |
SODIC TERRACE 5-8 P.Z. |
Similar sites
| R028BY074NV |
SODIC TERRACE 5-8 P.Z. ATCO-SAVE4 codominant shrubs; less productive site |
|---|---|
| R028BY010NV |
LOAMY 8-10 P.Z. ARTRW dominant shrub; ACHY-HECO26 codominant grasses; SAVE4 rare to absent. |
| R028BY041NV |
DRY FLOODPLAIN More productive site |
Table 1. Dominant plant species
| Tree |
Not specified |
|---|---|
| Shrub |
(1) Sarcobatus vermiculatus |
| Herbaceous |
(1) Leymus cinereus |
Physiographic features
This site occurs on fan skirts. Slopes range from 0 to 15 percent, but are typically <4 percent. Elevation ranges between 4800 and 6500 feet, but typically occur above 5500 feet.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
| Landforms |
(1)
Fan skirt
|
|---|---|
| Flooding frequency | None to very rare |
| Ponding frequency | None |
| Elevation | 1,676 – 1,981 m |
| Slope | 0 – 4% |
| Water table depth | 152 cm |
| Aspect | Aspect is not a significant factor |
Climatic features
The climate associated with this site is semiarid, characterized by cold, moist winters and warm, dry summers.
Average annual precipitation ranges from 8 to 10 inches. Mean annual air temperature is about 45 to 50 degrees F. The average frost free period is 100 to 120 days.
Mean annual precipitation across the range in which this ES occurs is 9.01".
Monthly mean precipitation: January 0.69; February 0.65; March 0.87; April 0.88; May 1.14; June 0.73; July 0.65; August 0.77; September 0.66; October 0.79; November 0.62; December 0.60.
*The above data is averaged from the Diamond Valley- Eureka and McGill WRCC climate stations.
Table 3. Representative climatic features
| Frost-free period (average) | 100 days |
|---|---|
| Freeze-free period (average) | 120 days |
| Precipitation total (average) | 229 mm |
Figure 2. Monthly precipitation range
Figure 3. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 4. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 5. Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
-
(1) DIAMOND VALLEY - EUREKA 14NNW [USC00262296], Eureka, NV
-
(2) MCGILL [USC00264950], Ely, NV
Influencing water features
Influencing water features are not associated with this site.
Soil features
Soils associated with this site are very deep, well drained, and formed in alluvium derived from mixed parent material. Soils have an ochric epipedon and are salt affected, moderately alkaline through very strongly alkaline, at depth. Sodium is the most common salt, but others may be present. Water intake rates are moderately slow to moderately rapid, available water holding capacity is high and runoff is low. The soil moisture regime is aridic bordering on xeric and the soil temperature regime is mesic. The soil series associated with site include: Appian, Idway, Kawich, Kunzler, Rebel, Sheffit, Slipback, Kelk, and Benin.
The representative soil series is Kunzler, a coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, mesic Durinodic Xeric Haplocalcids. An ochric epipedon occurs from the soil surface to 18 cm and a calcic horizon occurs from 41 to 104 cm. Clay content averages 10 to 18 percent and rock fragments, mainly gravel, are <15 percent in the particle size control section . Reaction is moderately to very strongly alkaline. Soils are effervescent throughout.
Table 4. Representative soil features
| Surface texture |
(1) Loam |
|---|---|
| Family particle size |
(1) Loamy |
| Drainage class | Well drained |
| Permeability class | Moderately rapid to very rapid |
| Soil depth | 152 – 213 cm |
| Surface fragment cover <=3" | 0% |
| Surface fragment cover >3" | 0% |
| Available water capacity (0-101.6cm) |
12.7 – 20.32 cm |
| Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-101.6cm) |
1 – 20% |
| Electrical conductivity (0-101.6cm) |
2 – 16 mmhos/cm |
| Sodium adsorption ratio (0-101.6cm) |
1 – 30 |
| Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-101.6cm) |
8.1 – 9.4 |
| Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified) |
0 – 15% |
| Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified) |
0% |
Ecological dynamics
An ecological site is the product of all the environmental factors responsible for its development and it has a set of key characteristics that influence a site’s resilience to disturbance and resistance to invasives. Key characteristics include 1) climate (precipitation, temperature), 2) topography (aspect, slope, elevation, and landform), 3) hydrology (infiltration, runoff), 4) soils (depth, texture, structure, organic matter), 5) plant communities (functional groups, productivity), and 6) natural disturbance regime (fire, herbivory, etc.) (Caudle et al 2013). Biotic factors that influence resilience include site productivity, species composition and structure, and population regulation and regeneration (Chambers et al. 2013).
The Great Basin shrub communities have high spatial and temporal variability in precipitation, both among years and within growing seasons. Nutrient availability is typically low but increases with elevation and closely follows moisture availability. The moisture resource supporting the greatest amount of plant growth is usually the water stored in the soil profile during the winter. The invasibility of plant communities is often linked to resource availability. Disturbance can decrease resource uptake due to damage or mortality of the native species and depressed competition or can increase resource pools by the decomposition of dead plant material following disturbance.
Black greasewood is classified as a phreatophyte (Eddleman 2002), and its distribution is well correlated with the distribution of groundwater (Mozingo 1987). Meinzer (1927) discovered that the taproots of black greasewood could penetrate from 20 to 57 feet below the surface. Romo (1984) found water tables ranging from 3.5-15 m under black greasewood dominated communities in Oregon. Black greasewood stands develop best where moisture is readily available, either from surface or subsurface runoff (Brown 1965). It is commonly found on floodplains that are either subject to periodic flooding, have a high water table at least part of the year, or have a water table less than 34 feet deep (Harr and Price 1972, Blauer et al. 1976, Branson et al. 1976, Blaisdell and Holmgren 1984, Eddleman 2002). Ganskopp (1986) reported that water tables within 9.8 to 11.8 inches of the surface had no effect on black greasewood in Oregon. However, a study, conducted in California, found that black greasewood did not survive six months of continuous flooding (Groeneveld and Crowley 1988, Groeneveld 1990). Black greasewood is usually a deep rooted shrub but has some shallow roots near the soil surface; the maximum rooting depth can be determined by the depth to a saturated zone (Harr and Price 1972).
Periodic drought regularly influences sagebrush ecosystems and drought duration and severity has increased throughout the 20th century in much of the Intermountain West. Major shifts away from historical precipitation patterns have the greatest potential to alter ecosystem function and productivity. Species composition and productivity can be altered by the timing of precipitation and water availability within the soil profile (Bates et al 2006).
Wyoming big sagebrush, the most drought tolerant of the big sagebrushes, is generally long-lived; therefore it is not necessary for new individuals to recruit every year for perpetuation of the stand. Infrequent large recruitment events and simultaneous low, continuous recruitment is the foundation of population maintenance (Noy-Meir 1973). Survival of the seedlings is dependent on adequate moisture conditions.
Native insect outbreaks are also important drivers of ecosystem dynamics in sagebrush communities. Climate is generally believed to influence the timing of insect outbreaks especially a sagebrush defoliator, Aroga moth (Aroga websteri). Aroga moth infestations have occurred in the Great Basin in the 1960s, early 1970s, and are ongoing in Nevada since 2004 (Bentz et al. 2008). Thousands of acres of big sagebrush have been impacted, with partial to complete die-off observed. Aroga moth can partially or entirely kill individual plants or entire stands of big sagebrush (Furniss and Barr 1975).
These communities often exhibit the formation of microbiotic crusts within the interspaces between shrubs. These crusts influence the soils on these sites and their ability to reduce erosion and increase infiltration; they may also alter the soil structure and possibly increase soil fertility (Fletcher and Martin 1948, Williams 1993). Finer textured soils such as silts tend to support more microbiotic cover than coarse texture soils (Anderson 1982). Disturbance such as hoof action from inappropriate grazing and cheatgrass invasion can reduce biotic crust integrity (Anderson 1982, Ponzetti et al. 2007) and increase erosion.
Annual non-native species such as halogeton, Russian thistle, and cheatgrass invade these sites where competition from perennial species is decreased. The ecological site has low resilience to disturbance and resistance to invasion. Increased resilience increases with elevation, aspect, increased precipitation and increased nutrient availability. Five possible stable states have been identified for this site.
Fire Ecology:
Fire is a rare disturbance in these plant communities likely occurring in years with above average production. Natural fire return intervals are estimated to vary between less than 35 years up to 100 years in salt desert ecosystems with basin wildrye (Paysen et al. 2000). Historically, black greasewood-saltbush communities had sparse understories and bare soil in intershrub spaces, making these communities somewhat resistant to fire (Young 1983, Paysen et al. 2000). They may burn only during high fire hazard conditions; for example, years with high precipitation can result in almost continuous fine fuels, increasing fire hazard (West 1994, Paysen et al. 2000).
Black greasewood may be killed by severe fires, but can resprout after low to moderate severity fires (Robertson 1983, West 1994). Sheeter (1969) reported that following a Nevada wildfire, black greasewood sprouts reached approximately 2.5 feet within 3 years. Grazing and other disturbance may result in increased biomass production due to sprouting and increased seed production, also leading to greater fuel loads (Sanderson and Stutz 1994). Higher production sites would have experienced fire more frequently than lower production sites.
Wyoming big sagebrush is easily killed by fire (Blaisdell 1953). Wyoming big sagebrush only regenerates from seed. Repeated fires may eliminate the onsite seed source; reinvasion into these areas may be extremely slow (Bunting et al. 1987). Reestablishment after fire may require 50-120 or more years (Baker 2006). Even then, up to 25 years after fire, Wyoming big sagebrush typically has less than 5% of pre-fire cover (Baker 2011). However, the introduction and expansion of cheatgrass has dramatically altered the fire regime (Balch et al. 2013), therefore altering restoration potential of Wyoming big sagebrush communities (Evans and Young 1978). Sites with low abundances of native perennial grasses and forbs typically have reduced resiliency following disturbance and are less resistant to invasion or increases in cheatgrass (Miller et al 2013).
The effect of fire on bunchgrasses relates to culm density, culm-leaf morphology, and the size of the plant. The initial condition of bunchgrasses within the site along with seasonality and intensity of the fire all factor into the individual species response. For most forbs and grasses the growing points are located at or below the soil surface providing relative protection from disturbances which decrease above ground biomass, such as grazing or fire. Thus, fire mortality is more correlated to duration and intensity of heat which is related to culm density, culm-leaf morphology, size of plant and abundance of old growth (Wright 1971, Young 1983).
Basin wildrye, the dominant understory species on this site, is relatively resistant to fire, particularly dormant season fire, as plants sprout from surviving root crowns and rhizomes (Zschaechner 1985). Miller et al. 2013 reports fall and spring burning increased total shoot and reproductive shoot densities in the first year, although live basal areas were similar between burn and unburned plants. By year two there was little difference between burned and control treatments.
Indian ricegrass is fairly fire tolerant (Wright 1985), which is likely due to its low culm density and below ground plant crowns. Vallentine (1989) cites several studies in the sagebrush zone that classified Indian ricegrass as being slightly damaged from late summer burning. Indian ricegrass has also been found to reestablish on burned sites through seed dispersed from adjacent unburned areas (Young 1983, West 1994). Thus the presence of surviving, seed producing plants facilitates the reestablishment of Indian ricegrass. Grazing management following fire to promote seed production and establishment of seedlings is important.
State and transition model
Figure 6. State and Transition Model
Figure 7. Legend
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Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text
State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 5 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference State
The Reference State 1.0 is a representative of the natural range of variability under pristine conditions. The Reference State has three general community phases; a shrub-grass dominant phase, a perennial grass dominant phase and a shrub dominant phase. State dynamics are maintained by interactions between climatic patterns and disturbance regimes. Negative feedbacks enhance ecosystem resilience and contribute to the stability of the state. These include the presence of all structural and functional groups, low fine fuel loads, and retention of organic matter and nutrients. Plant community phase changes are primarily driven by fire, periodic drought and/or insect or disease attack.
Community 1.1
Community Phase
This community is dominated by black greasewood and big sagebrush. Basin wildrye and Indian ricegrass are also common on these sites. Rabbitbrush, shadscale, bottlebrush squirreltail and other perennial bunchgrasses and shrubs make up smaller components. Potential vegetative composition is about 20% grasses, 5% forbs and 75% shrubs. Approximate ground cover (basal and crown) is 25 to 35 percent.
Figure 8. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (kg/hectare) |
Representative value (kg/hectare) |
High (kg/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shrub/Vine | 336 | 504 | 673 |
| Grass/Grasslike | 90 | 135 | 179 |
| Forb | 22 | 34 | 45 |
| Total | 448 | 673 | 897 |
Community 1.2
Community Phase
This community phase is characteristic of a post-disturbance, early-seral community phase. Basin wildrye and Indian ricegrass dominate the community. Black greasewood will decrease but will likely sprout and return to pre-burn levels within a few years. Big sagebrush is killed by fire and may be reduced in the community for several years. Early colonizers such as rabbitbrush and shadscale may increase.
Community 1.3
Community Phase
Black greasewood and big sagebrush increase in the absence of disturbance. Decadent shrubs dominate the overstory and deep-rooted perennial bunchgrasses in the understory are reduced either from competition with shrubs, herbivory, drought or combinations of these.
Pathway a
Community 1.1 to 1.2
A low severity fire would decrease overstory of black greasewood and big sagebrush, allowing the understory of perennial grasses to increase. Fires are typically low severity resulting in a mosaic pattern due to low fuel loads. A fire following an unusually wet spring facilitating an increase in fine fuels may be more severe and reduce black greasewood and big sagebrush cover to trace amounts.
Pathway b
Community 1.1 to 1.3
Absence of disturbance over time, significant herbivory, chronic drought or combinations of these would allow the black greasewood and big sagebrush to increase and dominate the site. This will generally cause a reduction in perennial bunchgrasses. Heavy spring utilization will favor an increase in black greasewood.
Pathway a
Community 1.2 to 1.1
Time and lack of disturbance will allow shrubs to increase.
Pathway a
Community 1.3 to 1.2
Fire will decrease the overstory of black greasewood and big sagebrush, allowing perennial bunchgrasses to dominate the site. Fires will typically be high intensity in this phase due to the dominance of black greasewood resulting in removal of the overstory shrub community.
State 2
Current Potential State
This state is similar to the Reference State 1.0 with three similar community phases. Ecological function has not changed, however the resiliency of the state has been reduced by the presence of invasive weeds. Non-natives may increase in abundance but will not become dominant within this State. These non-natives can be highly flammable and can promote fire where historically fire had been infrequent. Negative feedbacks enhance ecosystem resilience and contribute to the stability of the state. These feedbacks include the presence of all structural and functional groups, low fine fuel loads, and retention of organic matter and nutrients. Positive feedbacks decrease ecosystem resilience and stability of the state. These include the non-natives’ high seed output, persistent seed bank, rapid growth rate, ability to cross pollinate, and adaptations for seed dispersal.
Community 2.1
Community Phase
This community is dominated by black greasewood and big sagebrush. Basin wildrye and Indian ricegrass are also common on these sites. Rabbitbrush, shadscale, bottlebrush squirreltail and other perennial bunchgrasses and shrubs make up smaller components. Non-native annual species such as annual mustards, halogeton and cheatgrass are present.
Community 2.2
Community Phase
This community phase is characteristic of a post-disturbance, early-seral community phase. Basin wildrye and Indian ricegrass dominate the community. Black greasewood will decrease but will likely sprout and return to pre-burn levels within a few years. Big sagebrush is killed by fire and may be reduced in the community for several years. Early colonizers such as rabbitbrush and shadscale may increase. Annual non-native species are stable to increasing in the community.
Community 2.3
Community Phase
Black greasewood and big sagebrush increase in the absence of disturbance. Decadent shrubs dominate the overstory and deep-rooted perennial bunchgrasses in the understory are reduced either from competition with shrubs, herbivory, drought or combinations of these.
Pathway a
Community 2.1 to 2.2
A low severity fire would decrease the overstory of black greasewood and big sagebrush, allowing understory perennial grasses to increase. Fires are typically low severity resulting in a mosaic pattern due to low fuel loads. A fire following an unusually wet spring facilitating an increase in fine fuels may be more severe and reduce black greasewood and big sagebrush cover to trace amounts.
Pathway b
Community 2.1 to 2.3
Absence of disturbance over time, significant herbivory, chronic drought or combinations of these would allow the black greasewood and big sagebrush overstory to increase and dominate the site. This will generally cause a reduction in perennial bunch grasses. Heavy spring utilization will favor an increase in black greasewood.
Pathway a
Community 2.2 to 2.1
Time and lack of disturbance will allow shrubs to increase
Pathway a
Community 2.3 to 2.2
Fire will decrease the overstory of black greasewood and big sagebrush and allow for the perennial bunchgrasses to dominate the site. Fires will typically be high intensity in this phase due to the dominance of black greasewood resulting in removal of the overstory shrub community.
State 3
Shrub State
This state has two community phases, one that is characterized by a co-dominance of black greasewood and big sagebrush and the other with black greasewood overstory. This site has crossed a biotic threshold and site processes are being controlled by shrubs. Bare ground has increased and pedestalling of grasses may be excessive.
Community 3.1
Community Phase
Figure 9. Sodic Terrace 8-10" (R028BY028NV) T.Stringham May 2012
Decadent sagebrush and black greasewood dominates the site. Perennial bunchgrasses are present but a minor component. Annual non-native species may be present and may be increasing in the understory.
Community 3.2
Community Phase
Figure 10. Sodic Terrace 8-10" (R028BY028NV) T.Stringham April 2013
Figure 11. Sodic Terrace 8-10" (R028BY028NV) T.Stringham April 2013
Black greasewood dominates the overstory. Rabbitbrush may be a significant component. Deep-rooted perennial bunchgrasses may be present in trace amounts or absent from the community. Annual non-native species increase. Bare ground is significant.
Pathway a
Community 3.1 to 3.2
Fire would reduce sagebrush overstory and allow for an increase in sprouting shrubs such as black greasewood and rabbitbrush. Soil disturbing treatments such as plowing and drill seeding would also decrease sagebrush and allow for sprouting shrubs to dominate site.
State 4
Annual State
This community is characterized by the dominance of annual non-native species such as halogeton, cheatgrass and Russian thistle in the understory. Sagebrush and/or rabbitbrush may dominate the overstory.
Community 4.1
Community Phase
Figure 12. Sodic Terrace 8-10" (R028BY028NV) T.Stringham May 2012
Annual non-native plants such as halogeton and cheatgrass dominate this site. Black greasewood and sagebrush may be a minor component or missing from the community.
State 5
Seeded State
This state has three general community phases, and is characterized by the dominance of seeded introduced species. Wyoming big sagebrush, black greasewood and other shrubs may be present. Native and non-native forbs may also be present.
Community 5.1
Community Phase
Figure 13. Sodic Terrace 8-10" (R028BY028NV) P.Novak-Echenique MU582 May 10, 2012
Introduced wheatgrass and wildrye species dominate the community. Native and non-native forbs may be present. Trace amounts of big sagebrush and black greasewood may be present, especially if seeded. Annual non-native species present.
Community 5.2
Community Phase
Figure 14. Sodic Terrace 8-10" (R028BY028NV) T.Stringham May 2012
Big sagebrush, black greasewood and seeded species co-dominate. Annual non-native species are stable to increasing within the community.
Community 5.3
Community Phase
Black greasewood and big sagebrush dominate. Rabbitbrush may be a significant component. Wheatgrass vigor and density is reduced. Annual non-native species are stable to increasing.
Pathway a
Community 5.1 to 5.2
Inappropriate grazing management particularly during the growing season reduces the perennial bunchgrass vigor and density and facilitates shrub establishment.
Pathway a
Community 5.2 to 5.1
Low severity fire and/or brush management would reduce the sagebrush overstory and allow seeded wheatgrass species to become dominant.
Pathway b
Community 5.2 to 5.3
Absence of shrub removal disturbances over time coupled with inappropriate grazing management that promotes a reduction in perennial bunchgrasses and facilitates shrub dominance.
Pathway a
Community 5.3 to 5.1
Fire eliminates/decreases the overstory of sagebrush and allows for the understory perennial grasses to increase. Fires would typically be low severity resulting in a mosaic pattern due to low fine fuel loads. A fire following an unusually wet spring or change in management favoring an increase in fine fuels, may be more severe and reduce the shrub component to trace amounts. Brush treatments with minimal soil disturbance would also decrease sagebrush and release the perennial understory. Annual non-native species respond well to fire and may increase post-burn.
Transition A
State 1 to 2
Trigger: This transition is caused by the introduction of non-native annual plants, such as cheatgrass, mustards, Russian thistle, and halogeton. Slow variables: Over time the annual non-native species will increase within the community. Threshold: Any amount of introduced non-native species causes an immediate decrease in the resilience of the site. Annual non-native species cannot be easily removed from the system and have the potential to significantly alter disturbance regimes from their historic range of variation.
Transition A
State 2 to 3
Trigger: To Community Phase 3.1 or 3.2: Inappropriate cattle/horse grazing will decrease or eliminate deep rooted perennial bunchgrasses and favor shrub growth and establishment. To Community Phase 3.2: Fire will reduce and/or eliminate big sagebrush overstory and decrease perennial bunchgrasses. Soil disturbing brush treatments will reduce big sagebrush and possibly increase non-native annual species. Slow variables: Long term decrease in deep-rooted perennial grass density and/or black greasewood. Threshold: Loss of deep-rooted perennial bunchgrasses changes nutrient cycling, nutrient redistribution, and reduces soil organic matter. Loss of long-lived, black greasewood and big sagebrush changes the temporal and depending on the replacement shrub, the spatial distribution of nutrient cycling.
Transition A
State 3 to 4
Trigger: Severe fire and/or multiple fires. Slow variables: Increased production and cover of non-native annual species. Threshold: Increased, continuous fine fuels modify the fire regime by changing intensity, size and spatial variability of fires. Changes in plant community composition and spatial variability of vegetation due to the loss of perennial bunchgrasses and sagebrush truncate energy capture spatially and temporally thus impacting nutrient cycling and distribution.
Restoration pathway A
State 3 to 5
Brush management with minimal soil disturbance, coupled with seeding of desired species, usually wheatgrasses or wildrye. Probability of success is low.
Additional community tables
Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (kg/hectare) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Primary Perennial Grasses | 81–202 | ||||
| basin wildrye | LECI4 | Leymus cinereus | 67–135 | – | ||
| Indian ricegrass | ACHY | Achnatherum hymenoides | 13–67 | – | ||
| 2 | Secondary Perennial Grasses | 34–67 | ||||
| squirreltail | ELEL5 | Elymus elymoides | 3–13 | – | ||
| thickspike wheatgrass | ELLAL | Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus | 3–13 | – | ||
| bluegrass | POA | Poa | 3–13 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 3 | Perennial | 13–54 | ||||
| thickspike wheatgrass | ELLA3 | Elymus lanceolatus | 3–13 | – | ||
| globemallow | SPHAE | Sphaeralcea | 3–13 | – | ||
| princesplume | STANL | Stanleya | 3–13 | – | ||
| thelypody | THELY | Thelypodium | 3–13 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 4 | Primary Shrubs | 350–504 | ||||
| greasewood | SAVE4 | Sarcobatus vermiculatus | 202–269 | – | ||
| basin big sagebrush | ARTRT | Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata | 67–101 | – | ||
| rubber rabbitbrush | ERNAC2 | Ericameria nauseosa ssp. consimilis | 13–34 | – | ||
| 5 | Secondary Shrubs | 34–90 | ||||
| shadscale saltbush | ATCO | Atriplex confertifolia | 3–20 | – | ||
| spiny hopsage | GRSP | Grayia spinosa | 3–20 | – | ||
| winterfat | KRLA2 | Krascheninnikovia lanata | 3–20 | – | ||
| bud sagebrush | PIDE4 | Picrothamnus desertorum | 3–20 | – | ||
Interpretations
Animal community
Livestock Interpretations:
This site is suited to livestock grazing. Grazing management considerations include timing, intensity and duration of grazing. During settlement, many of the cattle in the Great Basin were wintered on extensive basin wildrye stands however due to sensitivity to spring use many stands were decimated by early in the 20th century (Young et al. 1976). Less palatable species such as black greasewood and rabbitbrush increased in dominance along with invasive non-native species such as povertyweed, Russian thistle, mustards and cheatgrass (Roundy 1985). The early growth and abundant production of basin wildrye make it a valuable source of forage for livestock. Basin wildrye is intolerant of heavy or repeated grazing, especially if grazed before reaching maturity. It is important forage for cattle and is readily grazed by cattle and horses in early spring and fall. Though coarse-textured during the winter, basin wildrye may be utilized more frequently by livestock and wildlife when snow has covered low shrubs and other grasses. Spring defoliation of basin wildrye and/or consistent, heavy grazing during the growing season has been found to significantly reduce basin wildrye production and density (Krall et al. 1971). Thus, inadequate rest and recovery from defoliation can cause a decrease in basin wildrye and an increase in rabbitbrush and black greasewood, along with non-native weeds (Young et al. 1976, Roundy 1985). Additionally, natural basin wildrye seed viability has been found to be low and seedlings lack vigor (Young and Evans 1981). Roundy (1985) found that although basin wildrye is adapted to seasonally dry saline soils, high and frequent spring precipitation is necessary to establish it from seed suggesting that establishment of natural basin wildrye seedlings occurs only during years of unusually high precipitation. Therefore, reestablishment of a stand that has been decimated by grazing may be episodic.
Indian ricegrass is a preferred forage species for livestock and wildlife (Cook 1962, Booth et al. 2006). It is highly palatable to all classes of livestock in both green and cured condition. This species is often heavily utilized in winter because it cures well (Booth et al. 2006). It is also readily utilized in early spring, being a source of green feed before most other perennial grasses have produced new growth (Quinones 1981). Booth et al. (2006) note that the plant does well when utilized in winter and spring. Cook and Child (1971) however, found that repeated heavy grazing reduced crown cover, which may reduce seed production, density, and basal area of these plants. Additionally, heavy early spring grazing reduces plant vigor and stand density (Stubbendieck 1985). In eastern Idaho, productivity of Indian ricegrass was at least 10 times greater in undisturbed plots than in heavily grazed ones (Pearson 1965). Cook and Child (1971) found significant reduction in plant cover after 7 years of rest from heavy (90%) and moderate (60%) spring use in the desert ranges of Utah. The seed crop may be reduced where grazing is heavy (Bich et al. 1995). Tolerance to grazing increases after May, thus spring deferment may be necessary for stand enhancement (Pearson 1964, Cook and Child 1971); however, utilization of less than 60% is recommended.
Black greasewood is an important winter browse plant for domestic sheep and cattle. Black greasewood may increase in response to grazing. Removal of competition can dramatically increase growth rates and total leader length of black greasewood. Black greasewood contains soluble sodium and potassium oxalates that may cause poisoning and death in domestic sheep and cattle if large amounts are consumed in a short time. In a study by Smith et al. (1992), utilization of new growth on black greasewood shrubs by cattle was 77 percent in summer, and black greasewood was found to have the highest amounts of crude protein when compared to perennial and annual grasses. Black greasewood plants have been found to contain high amounts of sodium and potassium oxalates which are toxic to livestock and caution should be taken when grazing these communities. These shrubs can be used lightly in the spring as long as there is a substantial amount of other preferable forage available (Benson et al. 2011). Big sagebrush is eaten by domestic sheep and cattle, but has long been considered to be of low palatability to domestic livestock, a competitor with more desirable species, and a physical impediment to grazing.
Stocking rates vary over time depending upon season of use, climate variations, site, and previous and current management goals. A safe starting stocking rate is an estimated stocking rate that is fine-tuned by the client by adaptive management through the year and from year to year.
Wildlife Interpretations:
This site provides valuable habitat for several wildlife species. Black greasewood is an important winter cover and browse plant for wildlife. (Nevada Wildlife Action Plan 2012, Dayton 1931, Austin and Hash 1988, Johnson 1979). Ungulates, such as pronghorns (Antilocapra americana), browse black greasewood. Trace amounts of black greasewood were identified in the feces of pronghorn (seasonal preference was not determined) in a microhistology study by Johnson (1979). Furthermore, pronghorn and mule deer that occurred in greasewood habitat, utilized greasewood for cover, although the study did not determine if black greasewood was a desirable forage (Hanley and Hanley 1982). Other studies indicated that although mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and pronghorn do not prefer black greasewood as forage, the ungulates use black greasewood habitat as cover (Oedekoven and Lindzey 1987).
Small mammals will also utilize black greasewood. For example, trace amounts of black greasewood were identified in the feces of black-tailed jack rabbits (Lepus californicus), seasonal preference was not determined (Johnson 1979). A study in the Great Basin by Feldhamer (1979) found that pocket mice (Perognathus parvus) and chipmunk (Tamius spp.) populations were restricted to plant communities dominated by black greasewood. Black greasewood habitat is used in minor amounts by other small mammals including voles, chipmunks, porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum), and raccoons (Procyon lotor) (Anderson 2004.) Soils of this habitat tend to be loose and either sandy or gravelly and are often easy to dig making them attractive to species such as the pale kangaroo mouse (Microdipodops pallidus) (Nevada Wildlife Action Plan 2012). This habitat is also an important feeding ground for pallid bats (Antrozous pallidus), which eat scorpions and other large invertebrates off its exposed desert flats (Nevada Wildlife Action Plan 2012).
Black greasewood provides cover and nest sites for several species of birds. Bird species, such as the sage sparrow (Amphispiza belli) and lark buntings (Calamospiza melanocorys), are known to utilize black grease wood habitat (Wiens and Rotenberry 1981). The loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus) will use black greasewood for nesting and cover. Burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia) will use the loose soils for burrowing. Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus) winter in the valley bottoms where black greasewood occurs, preying on jack rabbits, and other rodents Nevada Wildlife Action Plan 2012).
Reptiles and amphibians also occur in black greasewood habitat. Western rattle snakes (Crotalus viridis) and gopher snakes (Pituophis catenifer) were recorded in greasewood habitat in a study by Diller and Johnson (1988). Reptile species including: eastern racers (Coluber constrictor), ringneck snakes (Diadophis punctatus), night snakes (Hypsiglena torquata), Sonoran mountain kingsnakes (Lampropeltis pyromelana), striped whipsnakes (Masticophis taeniatus), long-nosed snakes (Rhinocheilus lecontei), wandering gartersnakes (Thamnophis elegans vagrans), sidewinders (Crotalus cerastes), Great Basin rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus), Great Basin collared lizard (Crotaphytus bicinctores), long-nosed leopard lizard (Gambelia wislizenii), short-horned lizard (Phrynosoma hernandesi), desert-horned lizard (Phrynosoma platyrhinos), western fence lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis), northern side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana nevadensis), banded gecko (Coleonyx variegatus), desert iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis), chuckwalla (Sauromalus ater), zebra-tailed lizard (Callisaurus draconoides), pigmy horned-lizard (Phrynosoma douglasii), desert night lizard (Xantusia vigilis), whip-tailed lizard (Aspidoscelis uniparens) and western skinks (Plestiodon skiltonianus) occur in areas where black greasewood habitat is prominent. Similarly, amphibians such as: western toads, (Anaxyrus boreas) Woodhouse’s toads (Anaxyrus woodhousii), northern leopard frogs (Lithobates pipiens), Columbia spotted frogs (Rana luteiventris), bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), and Great Basin spadefoots (Spea intermontana), California toads (Anaxyrus boreas halophilus), Amargosa toads (Anaxyrus nelsoni), great plains toads (Anaxyrus cognatus), Sonoran toads (Anaxyrus alvarius), red-spotted toads (Anaxyrus punctatus) and mountain toad (Anaxyrus cavifrons), also occur throughout the Great Basin in areas black greasewood species are dominant (Hamilton 2004, Nevada Wildlife Action Plan 2012).
Big sagebrush is highly preferred and nutritious winter forage for mule deer. Sage grouse are also highly dependent on big sagebrush for both food and cover. Basin wildrye provides winter forage for mule deer, though use is often low compared to other native grasses. Basin wildrye provides summer forage for black-tailed jackrabbits. Because basin wildrye remains green throughout early summer, it remains available for small mammal forage for longer time than other grasses. Indian ricegrass is eaten by pronghorn in "moderate" amounts whenever available. In Nevada it is consumed by desert bighorns. A number of heteromyid rodents inhabiting desert rangelands show preference for seed of Indian ricegrass. Indian ricegrass is an important component of jackrabbit diets in spring and summer. In Nevada, Indian ricegrass may even dominate jackrabbit diets during the spring through early summer months. Indian ricegrass seed provides food for many species of birds. Doves, for example, eat large amounts of shattered Indian ricegrass seed lying on the ground.
Hydrological functions
Rills are rare. A few can be expected on steeper slopes in areas subjected to summer convection storms or rapid spring snowmelt. Water flow patterns are often numerous in areas subjected to summer convection storms. Flow patterns are short and stable. Pedestals are rare with occurrence typically limited to areas within water flow patterns. Frost heaving of shallow rooted plants is not considered a "normal" condition. Gullies are rare in areas of this site that occur on stable landforms. Where this site occurs on inset fans or fan skirts, gullies and head-cuts associated with ephemeral channel entrenchment may be common. Gullies and head-cuts should be healing or stable. This site may be ponded for very short periods in the late winter and runoff is very low to very high. In areas with herbaceous cover (although sparse) of deep-rooted perennial bunchgrasses and/or rhizomatous grasses, these plants can increase infiltration.
Recreational uses
Aesthetic value is derived from the diverse floral and faunal composition. This site offers rewarding opportunities to photographers and for nature study. This site has potential for upland and big game hunting.
Other products
The leaves, seeds and stems of black greasewood are edible. Some Native American peoples used the bark of big sagebrush to make rope and baskets. Basin wildrye was used as bedding for various Native American ceremonies, providing a cool place for dancers to stand. Indian ricegrass was traditionally eaten by some Native Americans. The Paiutes used seed as a reserve food source.
Other information
Black greasewood is useful for stabilizing soil on wind-blown areas. It successfully revegetates processed oil shale and is commonly found on eroded areas and sites too saline for most plant species. Big sagebrush shows high potential for range restoration and soil stabilization. Big sagebrush grows rapidly and spreads readily from seed.
Basin wildrye is useful in mine reclamation, fire rehabilitation and stabilizing disturbed areas. Its usefulness in range seeding, however, may be limited by initially weak stand establishment.
Supporting information
Type locality
| Location 1: Elko County, NV | |
|---|---|
| Township/Range/Section | T26N R62E S18 |
| General legal description | Approximately 1/2 mile north of the Elko-White Pine County line on the southeast end of the Medicine Range, Elko County, Nevada. This site also occurs in White Pine County, Nevada. |
Other references
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Contributors
CP/HA
T. Stringham/P.Novak-Echenique
E. Hourihan
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
| Author(s)/participant(s) | GK BRACKLEY/P.NOVAK-ECHENIQUE |
|---|---|
| Contact for lead author | State Rangeland Management Specialist |
| Date | 06/20/2006 |
| Approved by | P. Novak-Echenique |
| Approval date | |
| Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
-
Number and extent of rills:
Rills are rare. A few can be expected on steeper slopes in areas subjected to summer convection storms or rapid spring snowmelt. These will begin to heal during the next growing season. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
Water flow patterns are often numerous in areas subjected to summer convection storms or from run-in from adjacent landscapes. Flow patterns are typically short (<2m) and stable. They are meandering and long (15-20 ft). -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Pedestals are rare with occurrence typically limited to areas within water flow patterns. Terracettes if present are short and stable. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare Ground 40-50% -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Gullies are rare but may occur on inset fans or fan skirts and is associated with where run-in enters this site. Gullies and head-cuts should be healing or stable. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Fine litter (foliage of grasses and annual & perennial forbs) is expected to move the distance of slope length during periods of intense summer convection storms. Persistent litter (large woody material) will remain in place except during unusually severe flooding events. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability values will range from 4 to 6. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Structure of soil surface will be thick platy. Soil surface colors are light grays or pale browns and soils are typified by an ochric epipedon. Surface textures are sandy loams and fine sandy loams Organic carbon is typically less than 1 percent. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
This site may be ponded for very short periods in the late winter and runoff is slow to very slow. In areas with herbaceous cover (although sparse) of deep-rooted perennial bunchgrasses and/or rhizomatous grasses, these plants can increase infiltration. -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
Compacted layers are none. Subangular blocky or massive structure or calcic horizons are normal for this site and are not to be interpreted as compaction. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Reference State: Tall shrubs (big sagebrush, black greasewood) >> tall-statured, deep-rooted, cool season, perennial bunchgrasses. (By above ground production)Sub-dominant:
Moderate-height, deep-rooted, cool season, perennial bunchgrasses > shallow-rooted, cool season, perennial grasses > deep-rooted, cool season, perennial forbs = fibrous, shallow-rooted, cool season, perennial and annual forbs. (By above ground production)Other:
Additional:
-
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Dead branches within individual shrubs are common and standing dead shrub canopy material may be as much as 35% of total woody canopy. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Between plant interspaces 20-30% and depth of litter is ± ¼ inch. -
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
For normal or average growing season (through June) ± 600 lbs/ac; Winter and spring moisture significantly affect total production. Favorable years ± 800 lbs/ac and unfavorable years ± 400 lbs/ac. -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Potential invaders include annual mustards, Russian thistle, halogeton, and cheatgrass. -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All functional groups should reproduce in average (or normal) and above average growing season years. Reduced growth and reproduction occurs during drought years.
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