State 1
Saltbush/Bunchgrasses

Saline and sodic soils within the fine-loamy particle-size class, including influences from gypsum and calcium carbonate accumulations, support plant communities that are dominated by salt-tolerant dwarf shrubs. A variety of bunchgrasses are secondary on this site with a minor cover of perennial forbs.

Characteristics and indicators. The dominant cover is Gardner's saltbush and birdfoot sagebrush, with minor cover of greasewood and winterfat in some locations. These dominant low sub-shrubs comprise approximately 50 percent of the production on the site. The grasses, which make up 40 percent of the plant community, predominately are bottlebrush squirreltail and Indian ricegrass. As the sites transition, Sandberg bluegrass, threadleaf sedge, and blue grama will begin to increase. Needle and thread and western wheatgrass also are contributors in this state. The forb component is minor with only 10% of the production comprised by a select few forbs. A variety of desert parsley (biscuitroot or Lomatiums), wild onion, milkvetch, and tansyaster are found within this State. The general ground cover is open with 25 to 35 percent bare ground, but it is stable.

Resilience management. The drought tolerance of this state allows for a wide flexibility in production and composition shifts from year to year, but maintains the base diversity for each community phase.

Community 1.1
Saltbush/Indian Ricegrass

Figure 9. Needle and thread with Indian ricegrass are prominent in the Saline Upland Reference Community.

Equal composition of saltbush and perennial grasses with a minor component of perennial forbs is the signature characteristic of the Reference Plant Community for the Saline Upland ecological site. The dominant plant community can be found on areas that are properly managed with prescribed grazing including short periods of rest or deferment. Potential vegetation is about 50 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 40 percent woody plants. Gardner's saltbush, Indian ricegrass, and needle and thread dominate Plant Community Phase 1.1, and birdfoot sagebrush, winterfat, rhizomatous wheatgrasses, bottlebrush squirreltail and Sandberg bluegrass being subdominant. Other potential salt-tolerant shrubs, namely greasewood, can be found in small populations on this ecological site. The total annual production (air-dry weight) of this community is about 400 pounds per acre, but it can range from about 150 lbs./acre in unfavorable years to about 600 lbs./acre in above-average years.

Resilience management. This state is fragile, but well adapted to the Northern Intermountain Desertic Basins climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high tolerance for drought. This is a sustainable plant community but is difficult to reestablish when damaged, in reference to ecological site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Community 1.2
Saltbush/Bottlebrush Squirreltail

Figure 12. Bottlebrush squirreltail is the dominant species in this Saline Upland site, Community 1.2.

The Saltbush/Bottlebrush Squirreltail Community (1.2) is found under moderate season-long grazing by livestock. Prolonged drought can play an important role in the transition to and from this community. Gardner’s saltbush, birdfoot sagebrush, and bottlebrush squirreltail are the major species components, with other cool-season grasses increasing in the understory. Short warm-season grasses and miscellaneous forbs are found in pockets within the community. Historically, this plant community evolved under grazing by large ungulates, so it is not uncommon to find many of these species rooted within the crown of Gardner's saltbush. Dominant grasses include bottlebrush squirreltail, Sandberg bluegrass, and blue grama. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include smooth woodyaster, desertparsley(biscuitroot), and wild onion. Plains pricklypear and winterfat may also occur. When compared to the Reference Community (1.1), birdfoot sagebrush has increased while Indian ricegrass has decreased and may only exist in trace amounts. In addition, winterfat may or may not have changed depending on the season of use. The total annual production (air-dry weight) of this state is about 325 pounds per acre but it can range from 150 lbs./acre in unfavorable years to about 475 lbs./acre in above average years.

Resilience management. Rangeland Health Indicators: This plant community is relatively resistant to change. The herbaceous species are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term grazing. The herbaceous component is mostly intact and plant vigor and replacement capabilities are sufficient. Water flow patterns and litter movement may occur, but is not extensive. Incidence of pedestalling is minimal. Soils mostly are stable and the surface shows minimal soil loss. The watershed is functioning and the biotic community is intact.

Community 1.3
Saltbush/Rhizomatous Wheatgrass

Figure 15. Western wheatgrass is the dominant cover with Gardner's saltbush and birdfoot sagebrush in Community Phase 1.3.

Saltbush/Rhizomatous Wheatgrass plant community is found under similar conditions to Plant Community Phase 1.2, (moderate, season-long grazing) and may show similar disturbance traits. This community responds shift in production from wet to dry growing seasons. The fire threat typically is minimal because of the lack of fine fuels; however, in wet, early springs or late fall, bluegrass response may provide the cover and fuels to increase the risk of fire. This plant community is still dominated by saltbush and has a stronger composition of short warm-season grasses and miscellaneous forbs than previous community phases. Under continued drought or intense grazing, this community is at-risk of shifting to a sod-forming, warm-season-dominated grass community. The dominant plants for this community are Gardner’s saltbush and rhizomatous wheatgrass. When compared to the Reference Community, Sandburg bluegrass, blue grama, and plains pricklypear cactus have increased. Indian ricegrass, needle and thread, and bottlebrush squirreltail have decreased and may occur in only trace amounts within the canopy of saltbush and cactus. Season of use may have limited or removed winterfat from this community. The total annual production (air-dry weight) of this state is about 325 pounds per acre, but it can range from about 125 lbs./acre in unfavorable years to about 525 lbs./acre in above average years.

Resilience management. Rangeland Health Implications/Indicators: This plant community is resistant to change, the herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing. The herbaceous component is mostly intact, and plant vigor and replacement capabilities are sufficient. Water flow patterns and litter movement may be occurring, but only on steeper slopes. Incidence of pedestalling is minimal. Soils mostly are stable and the surface shows minimum soil loss. The watershed is functioning, and the biotic community is intact.

Pathway CP1.1-1.2
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Saltbush/Indian Ricegrass

Saltbush/Bottlebrush Squirreltail

Moderate continuous season-long grazing, drought–Gardner’s saltbush has shown a tolerance or resilience under slight and moderate grazing pressures over a period of time; however, the herbaceous component is susceptible and is weakened under year-long use. Indian ricegrass is the main species that will decrease initially. As the pressure persists, the vigor and frequency of Indian ricegrass will begin to decrease while Sandberg bluegrass will increase, and bottlebrush squirreltail will remain fairly stable. Production may not be altered depending on the precipitation for the year, but with continued stress the production will decrease as overall diversity and herbaceous cover is reduced. The transition into Community Phase 1.2 can be reversed with shifts in management and climatic improvements.

Pathway CP1.1-1.3
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Saltbush/Indian Ricegrass

Saltbush/Rhizomatous Wheatgrass

Drought, frequent or severe grazing–Drought conditions over extended periods of time weaken plant species, reducing the community to the most drought-resistant species. Drought combined with added stress of frequent, severe grazing can expedite the process. Frequent severe grazing of key species causes the site to become dominated by less desirable herbaceous species. Any combination of these factors reduces or removes the key bunchgrasses (Indian ricegrass and bottlebrush squirreltail), and causes Sandberg bluegrass or blue grama to become dominant.

Context dependence. The loss of seed source, lack of hydrology (dry climate, sporadic rainfall, and alteration to water infiltration and runoff), and salt-laden soils limit the ability for seedling establishment. The transition from 1.2 or 1.3 can be a factor of a seed source present during optimal seed germination.

Pathway CP1.2-1.1
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Saltbush/Bottlebrush Squirreltail

Saltbush/Indian Ricegrass

Prescribed Grazing or Long-term Prescribed Grazing–Given there is a viable seed source in close proximity, and with the appropriate rest and recovery time between grazing periods, Indian ricegrass can reestablish. The recovery process is slow and, along with low precipitation and poor seedling establishment conditions, it may take several decades (10-30 years) for recovery with no outside inputs. At this stage, seeding or other mechanical treatments are not suggested. Ground disturbance provides for a higher risk potential for erosion and invasive species.

Pathway CP1.2-1.3
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Saltbush/Bottlebrush Squirreltail

Saltbush/Rhizomatous Wheatgrass

Frequent and severe utilization of cool-season midgrasses during the growing season, Drought–The rhizomatous wheatgrasses, western and thickspike, as well as the low-growing cool- and warm-season grasses, Sandberg bluegrass and blue grama are encouraged with continued high utilization of the cool-season mid-stature grasses and bottlebrush squirreltail. As severe grazing reduces bottlebrush squirreltail, western wheatgrass and Sandberg bluegrass increase in density between or within Gardner’s saltbush plants. Drought will also decrease squirreltail and allows western wheatgrass, to gain dominance in this community.

State 2
Saltbush/Sod-formers

A combination of environmental disturbances and utilization has reduced the resiliency of the plant community, shifting the community to the Saltbush/Sod-formers State (State 2). Low-stature, warm-season tillering grasses (blue grama) and cool-season tillering grass-likes (threadleaf sedge) have increased in composition, reducing the overall diversity of State 2. Although this state (State 2) is stable with approximately 30 percent ground cover by Gardner's saltbush or salt-tolerant shrubs, the production is slightly reduced. The trend noted during sampling was an increase of annual forbs with the decrease of Indian ricegrass and bottlebrush squirreltail. Current and historic data has documented extreme swings in productivity between years (on an 8-10 year cycle) for Sandberg bluegrass and Gardner's saltbush specifically, but can be referred to many of the species present (based on a 50-year data set). This swing in production can provide a false sense that a threshold has been crossed, when in actuality, it is a natural response to drought and climatic changes. These changes are what allow the Reference State and this state (State 2) to be sustainable.

Characteristics and indicators. The Saltbush/Sod-formers State, State 2, is characterized by the intermixed community of Gardner's saltbush, blue grama, and threadleaf sedge.

Community 2.1
Saltbush / Sod-formers

Figure 17. Blue grama is dominant with other intermixed grasses on this Saline Upland ecological site.

This plant community (Community Phase 2.1) is the result of frequent and severe (year-long) grazing, which has adversely affected the mid-stature cool-season grasses. Unlike other ecological sites, the shrub component is less affected, but a change in vigor and stature will occur with continued grazing pressure. The droughty nature of the tillering species is caused by a decrease of infiltration of water in response to the thick, shallow mat of roots, channelizing runoff between established clumps or patches of vegetation. The density of the “patches” is smaller than seen in similar sagebrush communities. The lower soil cover by plants with the lack of structure to hold moisture, further compounded by drought, can reduce the stability of the soil and make erosion a more significant problem. When compared to the Reference Plant Community (1.1), threadleaf sedge and blue grama have increased, and pricklypear cactus has invaded. All cool-season mid-stature grasses and most perennial forbs have been greatly reduced. Production has decreased in response to the loss of perennial grasses. The total annual production (air-dry weight) of this state is about 225 lbs./acre, but it can range from about 100 lbs./acre in unfavorable years to about 450 lbs./acre in above average years.

Resilience management. Rangeland Health Implications/Indicators: This community is resistant to change and the removal of grazing does not seem to affect the plant composition or structure. The biotic integrity of this community is not functional and plant diversity is extremely low. The plant vigor is significantly weakened and replacement capabilities are limited due to the reduced number of cool-season grasses. The sod-bound nature of this plant community is resistant to water infiltration; however, the open, dissected nature of the "patches" of the site only has a minimal impact on infiltration. Sodded areas are protected by root structure, but impact off-site areas with excessive runoff that can cause rills and gully erosion. Water flow patterns are obvious in areas of bare ground and pedestalling is apparent along the sod edges. Rill channels are noticeable in the interspaces and downslope. The watershed may or may not be functioning, as runoff may affect adjoining sites.

State 3
Saltbush/Bare Ground

The management and climatic interactions that were speculated to have led to the Saltbush/Bare Ground-dominated State are not the only cause for this community. It is recognized that with continued grazing pressure and drought conditions, the productivity and sustainability of most perennial grasses will decrease, leaving a shrub-dominated state, and that in the absence of invasive species, this community can persist on the landscape. Correlation data from soil and ecological sites document that many of the communities that fit this definition were found to have a heavier textured soil (Clayey or Fine). The slow infiltration and sealing potential of fine soils restricts the potential plant community. There were sites, however, that were classified as fine-loamy (coarser soils) and were dominated by this community that were a product of management and drought.

Characteristics and indicators. The Saltbush/Bare Ground State is a Gardner's saltbush community with few other species existing in the community. The community is distinct on the landscape and has little variability.

Resilience management. Once this state is established on the landscape, it is resistant to most change. However, the open canopy is prone to invasive species when growing conditions are appropriate.

Community 3.1
Saltbush/Bare Ground

This plant community is found in areas subjected to continuous, year-long grazing. Gardner’s saltbush comprises nearly 100 percent of the plant community. Most cool-season grasses have been eliminated or greatly reduced, and the forb component has transitioned into mostly annual weedy species. The interspaces between plants have expanded significantly, leaving the amount of bare ground wide spread and the soil surface exposed to erosive elements. This open and exposed community is highly susceptible to invasion by noxious weeds such as cheatgrass. When compared to the Reference State (Community Phases 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3), plant production is diminished due to the excessive amount of bare ground and lack of perennial grasses. The ability for Gardner's saltbush to respond to precipitation patterns leads to a variability in productivity from one year to the next; however, composition is relatively stable. Long-term prescribed grazing and grazing land mechanical treatment (with possibly seeding) may be practices that can be used to bring this community to near or similar to Reference (Community 1.1 or 1.2). Remnant populations of native perennial grasses will persist in pockets within the Gardner's saltbush community, but in some instances, seeding may be required to help bring herbaceous species back to the community. No research has been located for large areas of revegetation, but minor success has occurred with seeding trials completed by Bureau of Land Management and University of Wyoming. These seeding trials occred on small, isolated areas and required periods of rest and will require long-term management to bring them back to a state that will resemble the Reference State. The total annual production (air-dry weight) of this state is about 175 pounds per acre, but it can range from about 75 lbs./acre in unfavorable years to about 400 lbs./acre in above-average years.

Resilience management. Rangeland Health Indicators: This plant community is resistant to change as the stand becomes more decadent. These areas are resistant to fire due to the lack of fine fuels and the increase of bare ground between the salt-tolerant shrubs. Continued frequent and severe grazing or the removal of grazing does not seem to affect the plant composition or structure. Plant diversity is extremely low. The plant vigor is diminished, and replacement capabilities are severely reduced due to the decrease in the number of cool-season grasses. Plant litter is noticeably less when compared to the Reference State. Soil erosion is accelerated because of increased bare ground. Water flow patterns and pedestalling are obvious. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is increased. Rill channels may be noticeable in the interspaces, and gullies may be establishing where rills have concentrated downslope.

State 4
Invaded

The Saline Upland site has proven to be more resistant to invasion by many of the aggressive weedy species threatening the rangelands today. However, there are a few species that still present issues as more land is disturbed by development, continued drought, and shifts in use (grazing, recreation, mining, etc). Cheatgrass (downy brome) poses the greatest threat, with annual mustards, clasping pepperweed, and woolly plantain holding their niches on the landscape. The persistence, resistance, and resilience of specific communities within this state will be further discussed.

Characteristics and indicators. The presence of at least 5 percent cover of an invasive species, dominantly cheatgrass, within the community is the threshold forcing this community into the invaded state.

Resilience management. Managing to maintain the remaining native species will working to reduce the invasive species is the best management practice focus for the Invaded State.

Community 4.1
Saltbush / Invasives / Perennial Grasses

The Saltbush/Invasives/Perennial Grasses phase has maintained a representative sample of the perennial grasses and forbs that are commonly found in the community within State 1 and State 2, with the accompanying Gardner’s saltbush composition. The invasive species are present and hold a significant (5 percent or greater) composition of the landscape, and are prominent in the community (referring to large scale composition, not few isolated patches on the landscape). Production of desired perennial species are generally reduced but the total production is maintained or elevated due to the production potential of many of the annual or invasive species. Production of this community phase will vary depending on the invasive species. Site-specific investigations must be completed to determine productivity and to select the growth curve that is best suited. The curve selected below is for a cheatgrass-influenced community. Rangeland Health Implications/Indicators: Plant diversity is similar to Reference or possibly higher, but will be reduced with further transition to a more degraded phase. The plant vigor and replacement capabilities are limited but are still sustainable. Plant litter is noticeably more when compared to Reference communities due to the potential biomass produced by the invasive species (species-dependent). Soil erosion is variable depending on the species of invasion and the associated litter accumulation. This variability also applies to water flow patterns and pedestalling. Infiltration and runoff are unaltered, but will degraded quickly as the community shifts to a more invaded phase.

Resilience management. Grazing potential on this site remains, with consideration to the cheatgrass (or other specific invasive species). Grazing to minimize the weed threat while maintaining or protecting the native species is key to the resiliency of this site. Eradication of the invasive species is not been successfully achieved at this time on this site.

Community 4.2
Saltbush / Invasives

This community phase is the at-risk community. As the native populations of perennial grasses and forbs become weakened, the site becomes invader driven, and is extremely difficult to improve. Gardner’s saltbush is able to compete and maintain a strong community under a heavy infestation level, but with continued stress will continue to degrade. The system is low in resistance. Rangeland Health Implications/Indicators: This plant community is resistant to change as the stand becomes more decadent. Plant diversity is poor. The plant vigor is diminished and replacement capabilities are limited due to the reduced number of cool-season grasses. Plant litter is noticeably more when compared to Reference communities due to the potential biomass produced by the invasive species (species-dependent). Soil erosion is variable depending on the species of invasion and the litter accumulation thus associated. The variability of the water flow and pedestalling as well as infiltration and runoff is determined by the invasive species inhabiting the community.

Resilience management. Management of the invasive species to maintain healthy cover and to minimize expansion is the targeted management. Eradication is not achievable within cheatgrass communities at this time; however, they do provide a forage benefit during select periods of the growing season.

Pathway CP4.1-4.2
Community 4.1 to 4.2

Drought, non-use, disturbance, or frequent or severe (continuous, season-long) grazing – After crossing the threshold into the Invaded State, the community will continue to degrade if disturbance or continuous, season-long grazing continues. Drought and non-use can leave soils dispersed and susceptible to invasion and loss of perennial grasses. Once an invasive species has gained a niche within a community and is able to begin to establish and propagate, the transition from the initial phase in this state to a more degraded phase may happen quickly when multiple factors are influencing the community. However, the transition can be stable and resistant to further degradation in many management situations. Proactive early detection and rapid response can be an effective tool at this stage to prevent this transition.

Pathway CP4.2-4.1
Community 4.2 to 4.1

Integrated Pest Management with Prescribed Grazing – The native grasses displaced by the invasive species generally will persist in remnant populations within the crowns of the Gardner's saltbush or scattered in small pockets on the landscape. If a site is addressed in the preliminary stages of the transition to this phase, there is a higher likelihood that integrated pest management (weed control) and grazing management will encourage the perennial grasses to increase or persist on the landscape. But as the site continues to degrade or transition to an invasive-dominated community, the ability to recover becomes more and more minimal. Halogeton maintains a more desirable community for grasses to persist. Cheatgrass tends to overpower and remove or inhibit the perennial grasses from the system, making recovery more difficult without major inputs.

State 5
Degraded/Altered

Energy development, mining, gravel or borrow pits, farming, irrigation canals, drainage laterals, and roads are only a few of the land uses that have had an impact on these arid, salt-affected landscapes. Much of this site is deemed unfit or non-productive; attempts to reclaim are marginal, and many attempts have failed. Historic attempts to improve productivity have altered the resilience and response pathways, affecting the site potential and stability. Specific references will be further discussed.

Community 5.1
Altered Lands

Altered lands have been impacted by human settlement and land use advancement. Many areas within the Wind River Basin were farmed during settlement periods, but as water and times became difficult many homesteads were abandoned. Rangeland improvement projects were completed in the late 1940s and early 1950s by the Bureau of Land Management in conjunction with University of Wyoming. Sections of salt-affected barren landscapes were contour furrowed or dissected with water-spreader dikes and seeded with predominantly a variety of grasses. Seeding trails were completed using species including crested wheatgrass, Russian wildrye, wheatgrasses, and Indian ricegrass. The furrows and dikes were created to increase water-holding capacity, which in turn improved vigor and production of Nuttall’s or Gardner’s saltbush and assisted the establishment of grasses. Remnants of the furrowing and spreader dikes are still visible and in some areas the seeded grass species are persistant in small scattered populations. Productivity variances were found negligible between treated and untreated locations; however, within the spreader systems, an increase in vigor and production are seen within the immediate vicinity of the dikes. Spaces between the dikes do not show any lasting benefit. Mechanical alteration of these areas in conjunction with seeding of an introduced species carried a lasting effect to hydrology; and even though the introduced species did not persist in all locations, these sites are altered from the Reference State functionality. Given more time the furrows may completely disappear from view. The benefits of the remaining furrows will be decreased but the altered hydrology will persist, and the community will not respond the same as an unaltered, natural state. Similarly, with lands that were farmed or irrigated, then abandoned to return to a natural state of vegetation, they will not be the same as the Reference Community in response to management and natural disturbances.

Resilience management. The persistence of an introduced, non-native species is a very indicative trait that will assist in identifying this community phase. These non-native species are not invasive, although they may be persistent and aggressive species. Crested wheatgrass, Russian wildrye, and a variety of hybrid wheatgrasses are a few cultivars that have been planted that have persisted on the landscape, altering the site. The act of seedbed preparation alone, without consideration of the original disturbance can be seen as an alteration to the soil function. Productivity of these sites varies greatly depending on the exact disturbance, age and successional stage of recovery from this disturbance, and what, if any, species were seeded into the site. Composition variability of this plant community limits the ability to provide accurate averages and grow curves, so no production values or growth curves are provided for this community phase.

Transition T1-2
State 1 to 2

Drought, frequent or severe grazing–Extended periods of drought have the ability to weaken the plant community's resilience, forcing the community over the threshold into the next state. Drought with added stress of frequent or severe grazing (i.e. continuous, season-long grazing) can expedite the process, removing the key species leaving the site dominated by the less desirable herbaceous species. Any combination of these factors will reduce or remove the key bunchgrasses, Indian ricegrass, needle and thread, bottlebrush squirreltail, and Sandberg bluegrass, and leave a blue grama dominated site.

Transition T1-3
State 1 to 3

Frequent and severe grazing, severe ground disturbance, drought–The combination of frequent and severe grazing (i.e. continuous, season-long grazing), especially when drought is a factor, continues the process of decreasing the forbs and grasses within the community. The desirable herbaceous species may become very sparse or are removed, leaving a saltbush-dominated community. Extended long periods of drought alone or severe ground disturbance will remove or inhibit the sustainability of the herbaceous component of this community.

Constraints to recovery. The lack of seed source and the harsh environment for seed germination (lack of timely precipitation, soil crusting, and arid climate) reduce the viability of seedling establishment on this site.

Transition T1-4
State 1 to 4

Frequent and severe grazing, drought, non-use, or ground disturbance (with seed source present)–Cheatgrass (downy brome), and many of the invasive weeds that are present in the Wind River Basin are drought-tolerant and able to establish in poor soils and growing conditions. The barren, open canopy that is typical of the Saline Upland ecological site is a prime target for these invaders. Given any level of disturbance, whether it is from heavy and frequent grazing use (i.e. continuous, season-long grazing), drought, or other ground disturbances, if there is a seed source present, these invaders will find a niche for establishment. The dispersed nature of salt-affected soils, especially in the absence of compaction by hoof action or traffic, allows for any variety of invasive species to quickly transition from the Reference State to the Invaded State.

Constraints to recovery. The inability to eradicate fully the invasive species (cheatgrass and halogeton) from a community is the limiting constraint to recover. Cost for initial treatment and the necessity for continued treatment limit the economic feasibility of recovery as well.

Transition T2-4
State 2 to 4

Drought, ground disturbance, frequent or severe grazing or non-use with a seed source present–The vulnerability of this state to transition to the Invaded State is increased as the canopy is opened with further disturbance, drought or grazing use (i.e. continuous, season-long grazing). Non-use is also a factor, because of the nature of the soils to become dispersed (loose) and open to seedling establishment. If the seed source is present (in the area), drought or abnormal precipitation patterns as well as non-use provide the opportunity for invasive species to establish. Many of the sources of disturbance (recreational vehicles, animals, and development activities) provide a source to bring invasive species into an area.

Constraints to recovery. The difficulty and in some instances inability to eradicate or effectively control some invasive species is the limitation to restoring this site to the any community.

Transition T3-4
State 3 to 4

Drought, Frequent or Severe Grazing, Non-Use, or Ground Disturbance with a seed source present–Once the community has transitioned into a saltbush-dominated state, productivity and functionality are at risk. If further disturbance occurs from severe (continuous, season-long) grazing, human impacts, or environmental), saltbush will begin to decrease and invasive species will increase in dominance, forcing this community to transition into the Invaded State. The effect of this plant composition shift is a decrease in hydrologic function and increase in the erosional hazard within the community.

Constraints to recovery. Weed control is the major constraint to recovery of this site.

Context dependence. The species of invasion and circumstances of each site specifically may offer more options for recovery.

Restoration pathway R3-5
State 3 to 5

Grazing Land Mechanical Treatment or Rangeland Seeding with Prescribed Grazing–The large-scale success of contour furrowing on the rangelands with a mixture of crested wheatgrass and other introduced or cultivated species has shown that this landscape can be restored to a functional community using improved varieties and selective grazing land mechanical treatments. Once established, management is required to encourage establishment and to sustain the species. Once the soil is disturbed there is a risk of erosion until seedling establishment can occur. Management of undesired species (noxious or invasive weed species) must be completed to ensure that the community is restored to an acceptable composition. Seedbed preparation and ground disturbance by any mechanical means will alter the soil structure and hydrology of an area, preventing the location from returning to Reference (Community Phase 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3). Although they may appear similar, post-disturbance response to management is altered from the Reference State and so is recognized as a reclaimed or restored community (State 5).

Restoration pathway R4-5
State 4 to 5

Integrated pest management, grazing land mechanical treatment, or rangeland seeding with prescribed grazing–Once a community has degraded to the Invaded State, especially if cheatgrass is dominant; eradication is not a feasible option, preventing restoration to the Reference State. An invaded community, however, can be restored to a functional plant community through intensive and integrated pest management and grazing land mechanical treatments. Removal of or reducing existing populations and establishment of forage species that are desirable and able to tolerate and compete with the invasive species helps to improve the function of the landscape. When a community has been significantly invaded, losing all of the key grazing species, reseeding the site to a competitive species may be the only option. Establishment will be slow and the variety of available seed sources for salt-affected soil conditions is minimal, but small-scale projects have been achieved with marginal success.

Transition T5-4
State 5 to 4

Drought, severe and frequent grazing, ground disturbance, or non-use with seed source present–Loose soils as a result of no hoof action during non-use or the decrease in key herbaceous species due to severe and frequent grazing (i.e. continuous, season-long grazing), drought, or disturbance opens the canopy and provides opportunity for invasive species to establish. Continued stress or addition of undesirable species will weaken this community even further.

Constraints to recovery. The inability to eradicate fully the invasive species (cheatgrass) from a community is the limiting constraint to recover. Cost for initial treatment, and the necessity for continued treatment limit the economic feasibility of recovery as well.