Land use 1
Rangeland

This land use, in MLRA 44B, is primarily native rangeland used for grazing of domestic livestock or for wildlife habitat.

State 1.1
Reference State

The Reference State of this ecological site consists of 2 known potential plant communities 1.1 Rough Fescue Community and 1.2 Mixed Bunchgrass Community. These are described below but are generally characterized by a mid-statured, cool season grass community with limited shrub production. Community 1.1 is dominated by rough fescue with subdominants of Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass. This community is considered the reference while Community 1.2 is a plant community codominated by rough fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, and Idaho fescue with mountain big sagebrush as the dominant shrub.

Community 1.1.1
Rough Fescue Community

In the Rough Fescue Community, rough fesuce (Festuca scabrella), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), and Columbia needlegrass (Acnatherum nelsonii) are dominant. Basin wildrye (Elymus cinerus), green needlegrass (Nasella viridula), and Cusick's bluegrass (Poa cusickii) will be subordinate grasses. Shrub species such as mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp vaseyana), yellow rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), and rubber rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa) remain a minor part of the community. In areas where the soil texture is coarser, spineless horsebrush (Tetradymia canescens) may occupy a small niche. Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) and dryland sedges may also be present. This community occurs on this Loamy site in areas with proper livestock grazing or in areas with little grazing use. Bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue lack resistance to grazing during the critical growing season and will decline in vigor and production if grazed in the critical growing season more than one year in three (Wilson et al. 1960). The critical growing period for bluebunch wheatgrass is late spring (June) while rough fescue is early summer (July). This community is moderately resilient and will return to dynamic equilibrium following a relatively short period of stress (such as drought or short-term improper grazing), provided a return of favorable or normal growing conditions, and properly managed grazing. Improper grazing is defined as grazing utilization that exceeds moderate use (less than 50 percent grazing use) and/or multiple grazing events of a plant in the same growing season without rest. As discussed in the Ecological Dynamics section natural fire regime restricted shrubs to relatively small portions of the Rough Fescue Community 1.1. Shrub species not listed above may also include Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp Wyomingensis), shrubby cinquefoil (Dasiphora fruiticosa), silver sagebrush (Artemisia cana), winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata), tarragon (Artemisia drucunculus), and fringed sagewort (Artemisia frigida).

Community 1.1.2
Mixed Bunchgrass Community

Idaho fescue tolerate grazing pressure better than bluebunch wheatgrass, rough fescue, and Columbia needlegrass. The growing points for bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue are several inches above the ground, making them very susceptible to continued close grazing (Smoliack, et al 2006), while Idaho fescue's growing point tend to be near the plant base. These grasses increases in species composition when more palatable and less grazing tolerant plants decrease due to overgrazing, drought, or intense fire. Idaho fescue, needle-and-thread, rough fescue, and bluebunch wheatgrass share dominance in the Mixed Bunchgrass Community (1.2). Other grass species, which are more tolerant to grazing and are likely to increase compared to the Rough Fescue Community, include Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), prairie Junegrass, western/thickspike wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii, Elymus lanceolatus) and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis). Some increaser forbs species include western yarrow, Hoods phlox (Phlox hoodii), scarlet globemallow (Sphaeralcea coccinea), hairy goldenaster (Heterotheca villosa), and pussytoes (Antennaria spp.). Fringed sagewort may also increase under prolonged drought or heavy grazing and can respond to precipitation that falls in July and August. Heavy, continuous grazing will reduce plant cover, litter, and soil organic matter. Timing of grazing is important on this site as grazing rough fescue in summer season has proven to negatively impact seasonal regeneration (Dormaar and Willms 1998), especially on the drier sites. Bare ground will increase and expose the soil to erosion. Litter and mulch will be reduced as plant cover declines. As long as the production of bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue are still a dominant species of total biomass production, the site can return to the Rough Fescue Community (Pathway 1.2A) under proper grazing management and favorable growing conditions. In this community, proper grazing management would be a grazing rotation that favors rough fescue. Such a grazing management plan would include conservative grazing with light grazing use during the critical growing season which is early to mid summer or preferably dormant grazing use. Dormant grazing use may be heavy as studies have shown rough fescue is tolerant to such utilization levels ((Johnston A and MacDonald 1967)(Willms et al. 1996)). Needle-and-thread and western wheatgrass will continue to increase until they make up the majority of species composition. Once rough fescue has been reduced to less than 30 percent by dry weight it may be difficult for the site to recover to Rough Fescue Community (1.1). The risk of soil erosion increases when canopy cover decreases. As soil conditions degrade, there will be loss of organic matter, reduced litter, and reduced soil fertility. Degraded soil conditions increase the difficulty of reestablishing bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue preventing the return to the Mid-Statured Bunchgrass Community (1.1). The Mixed Bunchgrass Community (1.2) is considered the At-Risk Plant Community for this ecological site. When overgrazing continues increaser species such as needle-and-thread and native forb species will become more dominate and this triggers the change to the Altered State (2) or the Degraded State (3). Until the Mixed Bunchgrass Community (1.2) crosses the threshold into the Needle-and-thread Community (2.1) or the Invaded Community (4.1), this community can be managed toward the Rough Fescue Community (1.1) using prescribed grazing and strategic weed control. It may take several years to achieve this recovery, depending on growing conditions, vigor of remnant rough fescue plants, and the aggressiveness of the weed treatments (if necessary).

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1.1 to 1.1.2

Mid-statured bunchgrasses lose vigor with improper grazing (see definition below), extended drought, or unusually hot fire. When vigor declines enough for plants to die or become smaller, species with higher grazing tolerance (primarily Idaho fescue on this site) increase in vigor and production as they access the resources previously used by rough fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass. Decrease of these two species to less than 50 percent composition indicates that the plant community has shifted to the Mixed Bunchgrass Community (1.2). The driver for community shift 1.1A is improper grazing management or prolonged drought. This shift is triggered by the loss of vigor of rough fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass, soil erosion, or prolonged drought coupled with improper grazing. Blaisdell (1958) stated that drought and warmer than normal temperatures are known to advance plant phenology by as much as one month. During drought years, plants may be especially sensitive or in a critical stage of development earlier than expected. Since needle-and-thread normally heads out in June and bluebunch wheatgrass in July this should be taken into consideration when planning grazing management. Improper grazing on this ecological site is defined as grazing utilization that exceeds moderate use (less than 50 percent grazing use) and/or multiple grazing events of a plant in the same growing season without rest. Associated with grazing intensity is timing of grazing. Rough fescue's critical grazing period is early to mid summer however may be better suited to grazing events in the dormant period. Bluebunch wheatgrass is also susceptible to grazing during this time.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.1.2 to 1.1.1

The Mixed Bunchgrass Community (1.2) will return to the Rough Fescue Community (1.1) with proper grazing management and appropriate grazing intensity. Favorable moisture conditions will facilitate or accelerate this transition. It may take several years of favorable conditions for the community to transition back to a bluebunch dominated state. The driver for this community shift (1.2A) is increased vigor of bluebunch wheatgrass to the point that it represents more than 50 percent of species composition. The trigger for this shift is the change in grazing management favoring rough fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass. In general, conservative grazing management styles such as deferred or rest rotations utilizing moderate grazing (less than 50 percent grazing use) coupled with favorable growing conditions like cool, wet springs are these triggers. These systems tend to promote increases in soil organic matter which promotes microfauna and can increase infiltration rates. Inversely, long periods of rest at a time when this state is considered to be stable may not result in an increase in rough fescue nor bluebunch wheatgrass and it has been suggested (Noy-Meir 1975) that these long periods of rest or underutilization may actually drive the system to a lower level of stability by creating large amounts of standing biomass, dead plant caudex centers, and gaps in the plant canopy.

State 1.2
Altered State

This state is characterized by having less than 30 percent rough fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass by dry weight. It is represented by 2 communities that differ in the percent composition of Idaho fescue and needle-and-thread, overall production, and soil degradation. Production in this state can be similar to the Reference State (1). Some native plants tend to increase under prolonged drought and/or heavy grazing practices. A few of these species may include Idaho fescue, needle-and-thread, Sandberg bluegrass, scarlet globemallow, hairy goldenaster, and fringed sagewort.

Community 1.2.1
Mixed Sagebrush Community

Long-term grazing mismanagement with continuous growing-season pressure will reduce total productivity of the site and lead to an increase of bare ground. Suppression of fire can also promote shrub growth, increasing plant interspaces. Once plant cover is reduced, the site is more susceptible to erosion and degradation of soil properties. Soil erosion or reduced soil fertility will result in reduced plant production. This soil erosion or loss of soil fertility indicates the transition to the Altered State (2), because it creates a threshold requiring input of energy to return to the Reference State (1). Transition to the Mixed Sagebrush Community Community (2.1) may be exacerbated by extended drought conditions. Needle-and-thread and Idaho fescue dominate this Mixed Sagebrush Community (2.1). Bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue make up less than 30 percent of species composition by dry weight and the remaining mid-statured bunchgrasses plants tend to be scattered and low in vigor. Increaser and invader species will be more common. Increaser forb species include hairy goldenaster, Missouri goldenrod, stonecrop, lupine, and yarrow. It is not uncommon for a minor component of invader species such as dandelion and goatsbeard to be present. This creates more competition for bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue making it difficult for them to quickly respond to a change in grazing management alone. Therefore, an input of energy is required for the community to return to the Reference State (1). Wind and water erosion may be eroding soil from the plant interspaces. Soil fertility is reduced and soil surface erosion resistance has declined compared to the Reference State (1). Wyoming big sagebrush steppe communities historically had low fuel loadings and were characterized by 10- to 70-year interval, fires that produced a mosaic of burned and unburned lands (Bunting, et.al. 1987). Following fire on the fine-textured soils, the perennial bunchgrasses recovered in a few years and were present to fuel a subsequent fire. Conversely, extensive wildfires burning under hot-dry conditions would have resulted in nearly complete destruction of scattered sagebrush (Arno and Gruell 1983). Winterfat is tolerant of low intensity fire but will kill with a hot fire (Pellant 1984). This community crossed a threshold compared to the Mixed Bunchgrass Community (1.2) due to the erosion of soil, vegetation composition, loss of soil fertility, or degradation of soil conditions. This results in a critical shift in the ecology of the site. The effects of soil erosion can alter the hydrology, soil chemistry, soil microorganisms, and soil structure to the point where intensive restoration is required to restore the site to another state or community. Changing grazing management alone cannot create sufficient improvement to restore the site within a reasonable time frame. Dormaar (1997) stated that with decreased grazing pressure a needle-and-thread/blue grama plant community did not change species composition but the content of the soil carbon increased. It will require a considerable input of energy to move the site back to the Reference State (1). This state has lost soil or vegetation attributes to the point that recovery to the Reference State (1) will require reclamation efforts, i.e., soil rebuilding, intensive mechanical treatments, and/or reseeding. The transition to this state could result from overgrazing and fire suppression, especially repeated early season grazing coupled with extensive drought. If heavy grazing continues, plant cover, litter, and mulch will continue to decrease and bare ground will increase exposing the soil to accelerated erosion. Litter and mulch will move off-site as plant cover declines. The Mixed Sagebrush Community will then shift to a Shortgrass-Shrub Community (2.2). Continued improper grazing will drive the community to a Degraded State (3). Introduction or expansion of invasive species will further drive the plant community to the Invaded State (4).

Community 1.2.2
Shortgrass-Shrub Community

With continued mismanagement of grazing, especially coupled with prolonged drought, Idaho fescue, needle-and-thread and Letterman's needlegrass will decrease in vigor. The bunchgrasses will decline in production as plants die or become smaller, and species with higher grazing tolerance (such as western wheatgrass) increase in vigor and production as they respond to resources previously used by the bunchgrasses. These less desirable, shorter rooted species will become co-dominant with the bunchgrasses. Shrubs will become more competitive for limited moisture as bare ground and soil erosion increase. This state may exhibit conditions where livestock is consuming shrubs.

Pathway P
Community 1.2.1 to 1.2.2

Pathway P
Community 1.2.2 to 1.2.1

State 1.3
Degraded State

Degraded State lacks midstatured bunchgrasses. Idaho fescue, Sandberg bluegrass and prairie Junegrass are dominant grasses. Increaser shrubs nearly replace larger shrub species. Remaining larger shrub species heavily hedged. This state is likely a terminal state (eg restoration will likely be impossible or unsuccessful without major energy inputs).

Community 1.3.1
Shortgrass State

Soil loss continues and subsequent loss of soil organic matter create conditions where native perennial grasses are reduced to less than 50 percent total production. Grass and forb cover may be sparse with obvious rill erosion between plant bases. Needle-and-thread and Idaho fescue exist in small patches. This could occur due to overgrazing (failure to adjust stocking rate to declining forage production due to increased invasive dominance), long-term lack of fire (if Wyoming big sagebrush occurs), or introduction of invasive species. In the most severe stages of degradation, there is a significant amount of bare ground, and large gaps occur between plants. Potential exists for soils to erode to the point that irreversible damage may occur. This is a critical shift in the ecology of the site. Soil erosion combined with lack of organic matter deposition due to sparse vegetation create changes to the hydrology, soil chemistry, soil microorganisms, and soil structure to the point where intensive restoration is required to restore the site to another state or community. Changing management (i.e., improving grazing management) cannot create sufficient change to restore the site within a reasonable time frame. This state is characterized by soil surface degradation and little plant soil surface cover. The forb component changes to be dominated by spiny phlox (Phlox hoodii) and shrub canopy cover is usually greater than 20 percent. Big sagebrush is replaced with a dominant community of low sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula), broom snakeweed, rubber rabbitbrush, fringed sagewort, and plains pricklypear cactus. This state has lost soil or vegetation attributes to the point that recovery to the Reference State will require extensive reclamation efforts, i.e. soil rebuilding, intensive mechanical treatments, and reseeding. Grazing management such as a rest rotation will not return this state to Reference without these reclamation efforts. This plant community may be in a terminal state that will not return to the reference state because of degraded soil conditions and loss of higher successional native plant species. Key factors of approach to transition: Decrease in grass canopy cover and production, increase of shrub canopy cover, increases in mean bare patch size, increases in soil crusting, decreases in cover of cryptobiotic crusts, decreases in soil aggregate stability, and/or evidence of erosion including water flow patterns and litter movement.

State 1.4
Invaded State

The Invaded State is identified by being in the exponential growth phase of invader abundance where control is a priority. Dominance (or relative dominance) of noxious/invasive species reduces species diversity, forage production, wildlife habitat, and site protection. A level of 20 percent invasive species composition by dry weight indicates the point that a substantial energy input will be required to create a shift to the grassland state (herbicide, mechanical treatment) even with a return to proper grazing management or favorable growing conditions. Prescriptive grazing that specifically focuses on grazing of the invasive plant can be used to manage invasive species. In some instances, carefully targeted grazing (sometimes in combination with other treatments) can reduce or maintain species composition of invasive species.

Community 1.4.1

State 1.5
Conifer Encroached State

Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and/or ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) encroachment is common on this ecological site and is generally focused in in areas where the mountains of MLRA 44B transition quickly to MLRA 43B. Under the Reference State, conifers may exist on this site however this is limited to 1 tree per hectare and is considered a trace canopy cover. Conifer encroachment likely occurs in the late stages of the Altered State (see State-and-transition model) where there is an increase of bare ground due to a combination of factors. Fire suppression and improper grazing management are the two most common triggers. The exact conditions in which juniper begins to encroach vary however the trend points to a combination of 1 or more of the following: moderately heavy to heavy grazing, reduced (non-existent) fire frequency, increased atmospheric carbon, and generally warmer climate (compared to that of pre-settlement). When heavy grazing occurs areas in the plant canopy open allowing for seed dispersal by bird or overland flow via rills on neighboring sites. The effects of juniper encroachment are not immediately noticed however over time as juniper canopy increases; light and water interception increase which reduce opportunities for herbaceous plants. One paper (Barrett, 2007) suggests that for precipitation to penetrate the juniper canopy, events must be greater than 0.30 inches. Increase juniper canopy creates perching sites for predators which reduces site suitability for greater sage grouse. More information is needed on the full extent and impact of conifer encroachment on this plant communities for an approved Ecological Site Description. Studies (Miller et al 2000) based in a similar community to the Conifer Encroached communities of Montana suggest following a phased approach to characterize the stand. Not unlike the Western Juniper community discussed in Miller et al, these communities of Montana exhibit 3 different phases based, at this time, on qualitative information.

Community 1.5.1
Conifer Community Phase 1

Phase I (Early) is defined by actively expanding juniper cover with generally less than 5 percent canopy cover and the trees’ limbs generally touch the ground. This early stage generally has not lost its hydrologic functions however herbaceous plant communities may show signs of reduced production and species richness. Control methods include mechanical removal and prescribed fire. Prescribed fire is still effective management in this phase as it still contains the necessary native plants for recovery. The tree canopy is also low enough that risk of a dangerously hot fire is reduced.

Community 1.5.2
Conifer Community Phase 2

Phase II (Mid Stage) is still actively expanding however canopy cover may reach up to 15 percent. Due to the more mature trees present, seed production is very high. This Mid Phase begins to highly restrict herbaceous and shrubby plant. Conifers tend to be codominant. Hydrology is departing from reference with rills becoming longer and in isolated areas erosional gullies may begin to form. Control methods of the Mid Stage should focus on mechanical treatment (chainsaw cutting or mastication) as there is a high risk of catastrophic and potentially hot, sterilizing fire. Post treatments of slash are currently being evaluated but typically include chipping, lop-and-scatter, and slash piling. Lop-and-scatter and slash pile treatments are often burned to remove excess woody debris. Qualitative assessments of these treatments suggests native bunchgrasses respond immediately in this stage and post treatment grazing management including 2 growing seasons of rest may be necessary.

Community 1.5.3
Conifer Community Phase 3

Phase III (Late stage) is where juniper cover exceed 20 percent and has slowed to resemble a forest condition. Lower limbs of trees begin to die and the shrub cover is nearly lost. Traveling through this community is increasingly difficult. Conifers become the dominant plant with herbaceous plant production greatly decreased. Bare ground increases and hydrologic function is nearly lost compared to a grass/shrub community. Late Stage Phase should focus more on restoration than control as the necessary plants will likely not be present to cross the threshold back to the Reference State. Site stability and hydrologic function are lacking in this phase so mechanical removal of conifer will be necessary and prescribed fire is not suggested. Grazing rest, post treatment, is important as remaining native grasses will be reduced in stature and will be susceptible to accidental overgrazing as livestock will seek out these tender plants. After a rest period, light and brief grazing may help initiate tillering of bunchgrasses.

Pathway 5.1A
Community 1.5.1 to 1.5.2

Over time Phase I community expands to increase in both height and width. The driver for this pathway is primarily lack of fire however heavy grazing (utilization that exceeds 50 percent) can help reduce herbaceous competition and expose soil for seed contact. Increase atmospheric carbon dioxide has also been shown to increase coniferous tree and shrub growth (Archer et al. 2017).

Pathway 5.2B
Community 1.5.2 to 1.5.3

Over time Phase II community expands to increase in both height and width. The driver for this pathway is primarily lack of fire however heavy grazing (utilization that exceeds 50 percent) can help reduce herbaceous competition and expose soil for seed contact. Increase atmospheric carbon dioxide has also been shown to increase coniferous tree and shrub growth (Archer et al. 2017).

Transition T1A
State 1.1 to 1.2

The Reference State (1) transitions to the Altered State (2) if rough fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass, by dry weight, decreases to below 30 percent or if bare ground cover is increases by 10 percent . The driver for this transition is loss of taller bunchgrasses, which creates open areas in the plant canopy with bare soil. Soil erosion results in decreased soil fertility, driving transitions to the Altered State. There are several other key factors signaling the approach of transition T1A: increases in soil physical crusting, decreases in cover of cryptogamic crusts, decreases in soil surface aggregate stability and/or evidence of erosion including water flow patterns, development of plant pedestals, and litter movement. The trigger for this transition is improper grazing management and/or long-term drought leading to a decrease in bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue composition to less than 30 percent and reduction in total plant canopy cover.

Transition T1C
State 1.1 to 1.3

The Reference State (1) transitions to the Degraded State (3) when bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue are completely removed from the plant community. Idaho fescue and needle-and-thread are subdominant to short statured bunchgrasses such as Sandberg and Cussick's bluegrass. The trigger for this transition is loss of mid-statured bunchgrasses, which creates open spaces with bare soil. Soil erosion as a result of increased bare ground and shallow roots decreases soil fertility, driving transitions to the Degraded State. There are several other key factors signaling the approach of transition T1C: increases in soil physical crusting, decreases in cover of cryptogamic crusts, decreases in soil surface aggregate stability and/or evidence of erosion including rills, water flow patterns, development of plant pedestals, and litter movement. The driver for this transition is improper grazing management, intense or repeated fires, and/or heavy human disturbance. Rapid transition is generally realized where livestock are confined to small pastures for long periods of time such as feeding areas, horse pastures, and bull lots. Degradation may be so extreme that traditional restoration methods may not be successful and require extensive mechanical and financial inputs.

Transition T1D
State 1.1 to 1.4

Healthy plant communities are most resistant to invasion however, sometimes regardless of grazing management, without some form of active weed management (chemical, mechanical, or biological control), the Reference State (1) can transition to the Invaded State (4) in the presence of aggressive invasive species such as spotted knapweed, leafy spurge, and cheatgrass. The Central Rocky Mountain Valleys tend to resists invasion of cheatgrass however recent dry climate cycles, repeated heavy grazing or intense human activities can open the interspaces of the bunchgrass community and allow for encroachment. Long-term stress conditions for native species (e.g., overgrazing, drought, and fire) accelerate this transition. If populations of invasive species reach critical levels, the site transitions to the Invaded State. The trigger for this transition is the presence of aggressive invasive species. Species composition by dry weight of invasive species approaches 10 percent.

Transition T1E
State 1.1 to 1.5

Conifer tree/shrub count exceeds 1 stem per acre. The trigger is the presence of seeds and/or other viable material of these tree species.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 1.2 to 1.1

The Altered State (2) has lost soil or vegetation attributes to the point that recovery to the Reference State (1) will require reclamation efforts such as soil rebuilding, intensive mechanical and cultural treatments, and/or revegetation. Examples of mechanical treatment may be brush control while cultural treatments may include prescribed grazing, targeted brush browsing, or prescribed burning. Grazing practices that promote rough fescue is primarily light to moderate grazing during the critical season (late June through July) or fall and dormant season of moderate however heavy utilization may not have negative impacts (Dormaar and Willms 1998) though grazing should match the species composition of the site prior to exceeding moderate utilization. Low intensity prescribed fires to reduce competitive increaser plants such as needle-and-thread and Sandberg bluegrass. A low intensity fire will also reduce big sagebrush densities. In areas with potential of annual grass infestation, fire should be carefully planned or avoided. The drivers for this restoration pathway are reclamation efforts along with proper grazing management.

Transition T2A
State 1.2 to 1.3

As improper grazing continues vigor of bunchgrasses will decrease, and the shorter grasses and shrubs will increase towards the Degraded State (3). Improper grazing management for this state can be defined as grazing events that exceed moderate grazing (40 to 50 percent grazing use), grazing season that exceeds half of the growing season, and/or grazing events that consume the plant regrowth in the same growing season. Highly managed grazing events that exceed moderate grazing levels for short timeframes are generally not included in this definition due to increased rest periods between these grazing events. Additionally, prolonged drought will provide a competitive advantage to shrubs allowing them to become co-dominant with grasses. Shrub canopy will increase however shrubs will express low growth forms. Mat forming forbs will also increase. Key transition factors: increase of native shrub canopy cover; reduction in bunchgrass production; decrease in total plant canopy cover and production; increases in mean bare patch size; increases in soil crusting; decreases in cover of cryptobiotic crusts; decreases in soil aggregate stability; and/or evidence of erosion including water flow patterns and litter movement.

Transition T2B
State 1.2 to 1.4

Invasive species can occupy the Altered State (2) and drive it to the Invaded State (4). The Altered State is at risk if invasive seeds and/or other viable material are present. The driver for this transition is more than 10 percent dry weight of invasive species. The trigger is the presence of seeds and/or other viable material of invasive species.

Transition T2D
State 1.2 to 1.5

Conifer tree/shrub cover exceeds 1 stem per acre. The trigger is the presence of seeds and/or other viable material of coniferous tree species.

Restoration pathway R3B
State 1.3 to 1.1

The Degraded State (3) has lost soil or vegetation attributes to the point that recovery to the Reference State (1) will require reclamation efforts, such as soil rebuilding, intensive mechanical treatments, and/or revegetation. Studies suggest (Whitford et al 1989) a mulch with high carbon to nitrogen ratio such as wood chips or bark in low moisture scenarios can be beneficial for slow mobilization of plant available nitrogen. Biochar may also be added to the system to improve Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) which should improve Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), microbial activity, and hydrologic conductivity (Stavi 2012). The drivers for the restoration pathway are removal of increaser species, restoration of native bunchgrass species, persistent management of invasives and shrubs, and proper grazing management. Without continued control, invasive and shrub species are likely to return (probably rapidly) due to presence of seeds and/or other viable material in the soil and management related increases soil disturbance.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 1.3 to 1.2

Since the deep-rooted bunchgrass plant community has been removed, restoration to the Altered State (2) is unlikely unless a seed source is available. If a sufficient amount of bunchgrass remains on the site, chemical application and/or biological control in conjunction with proper grazing management, can reduce the amount of shrubs and invasive species and restore the site to the Shortgrass Community (2.2). Grazing management strategies that follow light grazing and allow for long periods of rest will allow for limited recovery of remaining bunchgrasses, however grazing management alone may not directly result in restoration. Restoration methods such as reseeding may be necessary Low intensity fire can be utilized to reduce shrub competition and allow the reestablishment of grass species. Caution must be used when considering fire as a management tool on sites with fire tolerant shrubs such as rubber rabbitbrush, as these shrubs will re-sprout after a burn. Broom snakeweed and fringed sagewort may or may not re-sprout depending on conditions (USDA Forest Service 2011).

Transition T3A
State 1.3 to 1.4

Invasive species can occupy the Degraded State (3) and drive it to the Invaded State (4). The Degraded State is at risk of this transition occurring if invasive seeds or viable material are present. The driver for this transition is presence of critical population levels of invasive species. The trigger is the presence of seeds or viable material of invasive species. This state has sufficient bare ground that the transition could occur simply due to presence or introduction of invasive seeds or viable material. This is particularly true of aggressive invasive species such as spotted knapweed and cheatgrass. This transition could be assisted by overgrazing (failure to adjust stocking rate to declining forage production), long-term lack of fire, or extensive drought.

Transition T3C
State 1.3 to 1.5

Canopy cover of conifer tree/shrub cover exceeds 1 stem per acre. The trigger is the presence of seeds and/or other viable material of invasive species.

Restoration pathway R4C
State 1.4 to 1.1

Restoration of the Invaded State (4) to the Reference State (1) requires substantial energy input. The drivers for the restoration pathway are removal of invasive species, restoration of native bunchgrass species, persistent management of invasive species, and proper grazing management. Without continued control, invasive species are likely to return (probably rapidly) due to the presence of seeds and/or other viable material in the soil and management related practices that increase soil disturbance. If invaded by conifer encroachment, treatment depends on the condition of the rangeland. See Plant community 4.1 for alternative measures of restoration. Sites that have transitioned from the Degraded State (3) to the Invaded State (4) may be severely lacking soil and vegetative properties that will allow for restoration to the Reference State. Hydrologic function damage may be irreversible especially with accelerated gully erosion.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 1.4 to 1.2

If invasive species are removed before remnant populations of bunchgrasses have been drastically reduced the Invaded State (4) can return to the Altered State. The driver for the reclamation pathway is weed management without reseeding. Continued Integrated Pest Management (IPM) will be required as many of the invasive species that can occupy the Invaded State have extended dormant seed life. The trigger is invasive species control.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 1.4 to 1.3

If invasive species are removed the site could return to the Degraded State (3). Without sufficient remnant populations of preferred plants the Invaded State (4) is not likely to return to any of the other states. The driver for the reclamation pathway is weed management without reseeding. The trigger is invasive species control. The invading species cause a significant increased soil loss due to lack of ground cover (Lacey et al. 1989).

Transition T4B
State 1.4 to 1.5

Canopy cover of conifer tree/shrub cover exceeds 1 stem per acre. The trigger is the presence of seeds and/or other viable material of invasive species.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 1.5 to 1.1

Depending on the level of conifer canopy cover and its impact on rangeland health, restoration efforts may be simply focus on removal of coniferous trees and shrubs to restore the Conifer Encroached State (5) to the Reference State (1). If utilizing the phases established by Miller et al management and restoration methods will vary. An large majority of the conifer encroachment in MLRA 44B will fall into the early two phases of Miller's Phases. Phase I may exhibit None-Slight to Moderate departures from rangeland health where removal of the conifers via Brush Management and/or Prescribed fire combined. If mechanical removal of conifers is utilized, no grazing management is needed assuming relatively conservative management had been used prior to treatment. If prescribed fire is utilized, short term grazing deferment and/or rest is suggested. Given a short time removal of a Phase I encroachment will recover to Reference. Proactive pest management is encouraged. Phase II Encroachment may require a more intense mechanical removal of trees/shrubs with Prescribed Fire not being a feasible method of control as this community may be at risk of catastrophic fire due to canopy density. Phase II displays a Moderate departure from Reference suggesting an overall instability of the site such as reduced herbaceous production, reduced functional/structural groups (e.g. reduced mid-statured bunchgrasses), increase rill frequency and length, and possibly increased bare ground. Increased post treatment grazing management may be necessary. Grazing management may be as simple as short term growing season deferment however long term rest may be necessary in the latter stages of Phase II encroachment. Latter stages of Phase II encroachment will likely require some short term erosion mitigation such as straw waddles as well as range planting and/or critical area planting to re-establish any loss of native herbaceous plants particularly mid-statured cool season bunchgrasses. Phase III Encroachment canopy cover resembles forested sites with larger trees and shrubs. Forest management style tree removal (woody debris and logs removed from the site) will be necessary prior to any prescribed burning as to prevent the fire from burning too hot. The result of a prescribed fire on this site are typically unknown as seed sources of native herbaceous plants are usually limited to small patches. Since herbaceous plants will likely have been depleted under a Phase III encroachment, there is an opportunity for large areas of bare ground, increase rill and in some cases gully erosion. Post treatment will require range planting and/or critical area seeding, erosion control, pest management, and possibly soil carbon amendments (biochar). Grazing management (primarily rest) will be necessary to ensure any new seedling establishment.

Restoration pathway R5B
State 1.5 to 1.2

The Conifer Encroached State (5) Phases I and II will generally resemble the Altered State (2) on this site. If utilizing the phases established by Miller et al management and restoration methods will vary. An large majority of the conifer encroachment in MLRA 44B will fall into the early two phases of Miller's Phases. Phase I may exhibit None-Slight to Moderate departures from rangeland health where removal of the conifers via Brush Management and/or Prescribed fire combined. If mechanical removal of conifers is utilized, no grazing management is needed assuming relatively conservative management had been used prior to treatment. If prescribed fire is utilized, short term grazing deferment and/or rest is suggested. Given a short time removal of a Phase I encroachment will recover to Reference. Proactive pest management is encouraged. Phase II Encroachment may require a more intense mechanical removal of trees/shrubs with Prescribed Fire not being a feasible method of control as this community may be at risk of catastrophic fire due to canopy density. Phase II displays a Moderate departure from Reference suggesting an overall instability of the site such as reduced herbaceous production, reduced functional/structural groups (e.g. reduced mid-statured bunchgrasses), increase rill frequency and length, and possibly increased bare ground. Increased post treatment grazing management may be necessary. Grazing management may be as simple as short term growing season deferment however long term rest may be necessary in the latter stages of Phase II encroachment. Latter stages of Phase II encroachment will likely require some short term erosion mitigation such as straw waddles as well as range planting and/or critical area planting to re-establish any loss of native herbaceous plants particularly mid-statured cool season bunchgrasses. Phase III Encroachment canopy cover resembles forested sites with larger trees and shrubs. Forest management style tree removal (woody debris and logs removed from the site) will be necessary prior to any prescribed burning as to prevent the fire from burning too hot. The result of a prescribed fire on this site are typically unknown as seed sources of native herbaceous plants are usually limited to small patches. Since herbaceous plants will likely have been depleted under a Phase III encroachment, there is an opportunity for large areas of bare ground, increase rill and in some cases gully erosion. Post treatment will require range planting and/or critical area seeding, erosion control, pest management, and possibly soil carbon amendments (biochar). Grazing management (primarily rest) will be necessary to ensure any new seedling establishment.

Restoration pathway R5C
State 1.5 to 1.3

The Conifer Encroached State (5) Phases II and III will likely resemble the Degraded State (3) on this site due to reduced midstatured bunchgrasses. If utilizing the phases established by Miller et al management and restoration methods will vary. An large majority of the conifer encroachment in MLRA 44B will fall into the early two phases of Miller's Phases. This Restoration Pathway is exceedingly rare as it is typically not cost effect for land managers to manage for a degraded state. Phase I may exhibit None-Slight to Moderate departures from rangeland health where removal of the conifers via Brush Management and/or Prescribed fire combined. If mechanical removal of conifers is utilized, no grazing management is needed assuming relatively conservative management had been used prior to treatment. If prescribed fire is utilized, short term grazing deferment and/or rest is suggested. Given a short time removal of a Phase I encroachment will recover to Reference. Proactive pest management is encouraged. Phase II Encroachment may require a more intense mechanical removal of trees/shrubs with Prescribed Fire not being a feasible method of control as this community may be at risk of catastrophic fire due to canopy density. Phase II displays a Moderate departure from Reference suggesting an overall instability of the site such as reduced herbaceous production, reduced functional/structural groups (e.g. reduced mid-statured bunchgrasses), increase rill frequency and length, and possibly increased bare ground. Increased post treatment grazing management may be necessary. Grazing management may be as simple as short term growing season deferment however long term rest may be necessary in the latter stages of Phase II encroachment. Latter stages of Phase II encroachment will likely require some short term erosion mitigation such as straw waddles as well as range planting and/or critical area planting to re-establish any loss of native herbaceous plants particularly mid-statured cool season bunchgrasses. Phase III Encroachment canopy cover resembles forested sites with larger trees and shrubs. Forest management style tree removal (woody debris and logs removed from the site) will be necessary prior to any prescribed burning as to prevent the fire from burning too hot. The result of a prescribed fire on this site are typically unknown as seed sources of native herbaceous plants are usually limited to small patches. Since herbaceous plants will likely have been depleted under a Phase III encroachment, there is an opportunity for large areas of bare ground, increase rill and in some cases gully erosion. Post treatment will require range planting and/or critical area seeding, erosion control, pest management, and possibly soil carbon amendments (biochar). Grazing management (primarily rest) will be necessary to ensure any new seedling establishment.

Restoration pathway R5D
State 1.5 to 1.4

If utilizing the phases established by Miller et al management and restoration methods will vary. An large majority of the conifer encroachment in MLRA 44B will fall into the early two phases of Miller's Phases. This Restoration Pathway is exceedingly rare as it is typically not cost effect for land managers to manage for a degraded state. Phase I may exhibit None-Slight to Moderate departures from rangeland health where removal of the conifers via Brush Management and/or Prescribed fire combined. If mechanical removal of conifers is utilized, no grazing management is needed assuming relatively conservative management had been used prior to treatment. If prescribed fire is utilized, short term grazing deferment and/or rest is suggested. Given a short time removal of a Phase I encroachment will recover to Reference. Proactive pest management is encouraged. Phase II Encroachment may require a more intense mechanical removal of trees/shrubs with Prescribed Fire not being a feasible method of control as this community may be at risk of catastrophic fire due to canopy density. Phase II displays a Moderate departure from Reference suggesting an overall instability of the site such as reduced herbaceous production, reduced functional/structural groups (e.g. reduced mid-statured bunchgrasses), increase rill frequency and length, and possibly increased bare ground. Increased post treatment grazing management may be necessary. Grazing management may be as simple as short term growing season deferment however long term rest may be necessary in the latter stages of Phase II encroachment. Latter stages of Phase II encroachment will likely require some short term erosion mitigation such as straw waddles as well as range planting and/or critical area planting to re-establish any loss of native herbaceous plants particularly mid-statured cool season bunchgrasses. Phase III Encroachment canopy cover resembles forested sites with larger trees and shrubs. Forest management style tree removal (woody debris and logs removed from the site) will be necessary prior to any prescribed burning as to prevent the fire from burning too hot. The result of a prescribed fire on this site are typically unknown as seed sources of native herbaceous plants are usually limited to small patches. Since herbaceous plants will likely have been depleted under a Phase III encroachment, there is an opportunity for large areas of bare ground, increase rill and in some cases gully erosion. Post treatment will require range planting and/or critical area seeding, erosion control, pest management, and possibly soil carbon amendments (biochar). Grazing management (primarily rest) will be necessary to ensure any new seedling establishment.

Land use 2
Cropland

Native rangeland is converted to a Cultivated system dominated on introduced species for forage or grain production. This system often receives multiple inputs including fertilizer, herbicides, and irrigation.

Conversion C
Land use 1 to 2