Ecological dynamics
State and Community Phases
The information in this Ecological Site Description, including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed based on historical data, current field data, professional experience, and a review of the scientific literature. As a result, all possible scenarios or plant species may not be included. Key indicator plant species, disturbances, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.
The site which is located in the Southern Black Glaciated Plains Region developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions and included natural influence of large herding herbivores and occasional fire. Changes will occur in the plant communities due to weather fluctuations and management actions. Under adverse impacts, a relatively rapid decline in vegetative vigor and composition can occur. Under favorable conditions, the site has the potential to resemble the Reference State. Interpretations for this site are based primarily on the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sidoats Grama Plant Community Phase. This community phase and the Reference State have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts also have been considered.
The foremost diagnostic feature of this site is the shallow depth to bedrock (10 to 20 inches). The site does not receive additional moisture from higher adjacent areas and is subject to significant runoff. Relatively minor changes in local elevation can affect the plant community since the bedrock can fluctuate in depth. This site often occurs in complex with the Thin Upland sites.
This ecological site (ES) has been grazed by domestic livestock since they wereintroduced into the area. The introduction of domestic livestock and the use of fencing and reliable water sources have changed the ecological dynamics of this site. Continuous season-long grazing (during the typical growing season of May through October) or repeated seasonal grazing (e.g., every spring, every summer) without adequate recovery periods following grazing events causes departure from the 2.1 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase. Blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) will eventually develop into a sod. Western wheatgrass will increase initially and then begin to decrease. Green needlegrass, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, sideoats grama, big bluestem and little bluestem will decrease in frequency and production. Extended periods of nonuse and/or lack of fire will result in excessive litter and a plant community dominated by cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis), and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). Extended periods of no surface fire could result in the invasion of conifers in which eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) and Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) will increase and could eventually dominate the site.
Following the state-and-transition diagram are narratives for each of the described states and community phases. These may not represent every possibility, but they are the most prevalent and repeatable states and community phases. The associated plant composition tables have been developed from the best available knowledge at the time of this revision. As more data are collected, some of these community phases and states may be revised or removed, and new ones may be added. The main purpose for including the descriptions here is to capture the current knowledge and experience at the time of this revision.
State 1
Reference State
The Reference State represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site (ES). This state was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. Prior to European settlement in North America, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the Reference condition included periods of below and above average precipitation, periodic fire, and herbivory by insects and large ungulates. Timing of fires and herbivory coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. In some locations, this site likely received relatively heavy grazing pressure. Cool-season and Tall warm-season grasses would have declined and corresponding increase in short warm-season grasses would have occured. Today, a similar state, the Native/Invaded State (State 2) can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest.
Community 1.1
Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama
Interpretations are based primarily on the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase (this is also considered to be climax). The potential vegetation was about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses included big bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats grama, porcupine grass, and green needlegrass. Other grass or grass-like species included prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), needleandthread, western wheatgrass, plains muhly (Muhlenbergia cuspidata), Canada wildrye (Elymus Canadensis), prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), blue grama, and sedges (Cyperaceae). This plant community was resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high drought tolerance. This was a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Community 1.2
Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Blue Grama
This plant community evolved under heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included little bluestem, sideoats grama, blue grama, green needlegrass, and needleandthread. Grasses of secondary importance included western wheatgrass, porcupine grass, big bluestem, and sedge (Cyperaceae). Forbs commonly found in this plant community included cudweed sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana), prairie coneflower (Ratibida), and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). This plant community had similar plant composition to the 2.2 Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Blue Gama-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass.
When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase, western wheatgrass, blue grama, and sedges increased. Big bluestem, porcupine grass, green needlegrass, and sideoats grama decreased, and production of mid- and tall warm-season grasses was also reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes would have been functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses would have been reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allowed for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species.
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 1.2 Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest and/or prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies will convert this plant community to the 1.2 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase.
State 2
Native/Invaded State
The Native/Invaded State represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management, but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by cool- and warm-season grasses. It can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Taller warm-season species can decline and a corresponding increase in short-statured grass will occur.
Community 2.1
Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama
This plant community phase is similar to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase but it also contains minor amounts of non-native invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (up to about 15 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. This community is dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses include big bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats grama, green needlegrass, and porcupinegrass. Other grass or grass-like species include prairie dropseed, needle and thread, western wheatgrass, plains muhly, Canada wildrye, prairie sandreed, switchgrass, Indiangrass, slender wheatgrass, blue grama, Kentucky bluegrass, and threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia). This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high tolerance to drought. This is a sustainable plant community in regards to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Community 2.2
Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Blue Grama-Kentucky Bluegrass
This plant community is a result of heavy, continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include little bluestem, sideoats grama, blue grama, Kentucky Bluegrass. Grasses of secondary importance include western wheatgrass green needlegrass, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, big bluestem, buffalograss (Bouteloua dactyloides), smooth bromegrass, and threadleaf sedge. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include cudweed sagewort, prairie coneflower, and western yarrow.
When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase, western wheatgrass, blue grama, and sedges have increased. Big bluestem, porcupinegrass, green needlegrass, and sideoats grama decreased. Production of mid- and tall warm-season grasses is also reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes are functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses are reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allows for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species. The introduction of non-native invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass results in alterations to the soil profile. Organic matter levels tend to decrease and begin to be concentrated more in the surface layers, and the structure will begin to be modified. These changes favor the shallow-rooted species and hasten their eventual dominance if steps are not taken to reduce these species.
Community 2.3
Little Bluestem-Kentucky Bluegrass
This plant community is a result of heavy, continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 75 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include little bluestem and Kentucky bluegrass. Grass and grass-like species of secondary importance include sideoats grama, blue grama, western wheatgrass, threadleaf sedge, green needlegrass, big bluestem, and quackgrass (Elymus repens). Forbs commonly found in this plant community include goldenrod (Oligoneuron), cudweed sagewort, heath aster (Symphyotrichum), scurfpea (Psoralidium), Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), and western yarrow.
When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase, little bluestem and Kentucky bluegrass have increased. Production of mid- and tall warm- and cool-season grasses is reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. A reduction of the dominant functional groups as found in the interpretive plant community phase allows for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species. The introduction of non-native invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass results in alterations to the soil profile. Organic matter levels tend to decrease and begin to be concentrated more in the surface layers and the structure will begin to be modified. These changes favor the shallow-rooted species and hasten their eventual dominance if steps are not taken to reduce these species.
Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2
Heavy, continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 2.2 Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Blue Grama-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.1
Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods), periodic light to moderate grazing (possibly including periodic rest), prescribed burning occurring every 3 to 5 years, and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.3
Heavy, continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 2.3 Little Bluestem-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2
Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods), periodic light to moderate grazing (possibly including periodic rest), prescribed burning occurring every 3 to 5 year, and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies will convert this plant community to the 2.2 Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Blue Grama-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
State 3
Invaded State
The Invaded State is a result of encroachment mainly by invasive introduced cool-season grasses. The ecological processes are not functioning, especially the biotic processes and the hydrologic functions. The introduced cool-season grasses cause reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. The opportunity for high intensity spring burns is severely reduced by early green-up, and increased moisture and humidity at the soil surface and grazing pressure cannot cause a reduction in sod-grass dominance. Production is limited to the sod-forming species. Infiltration continues to decrease, runoff increases, and energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by root depth of the dominant species.
Community 3.1
Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass-Forbs/Shrubs
This plant community phase is a result of extended periods of non-use and no fire or occasionally light levels of grazing over several years. It is characterized by dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include cudweed sagewort, goldenrod, and scurfpea. Shrubs commonly found in this plant community include western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis) and wild plum (Prunus americana). The dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced.
The dominance of these introduced species has been shown to alter the biotic component of the soil, as well as, organic matter levels and eventually the soil structure. These alterations perpetuate the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass and tend to make establishment of native species extremely difficult.
Community 3.2
Kentucky Bluegrass-Sideoats Grama
This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous grazing or a combination of disturbances such as extended periods of below-average precipitation combined with heavy, continuous grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and sideoats grama. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface as well. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short, as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.
Community 3.3
Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer
This plant community developed under continuous, heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable, but often include non-native invasive and early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow-rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites.
Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2
Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1
Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 3.1 Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass-Forbs/Shrubs Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 3.3A
Community 3.3 to 3.2
This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase.
State 4
Conifer/Invaded State
The Conifer/Invaded State is dominated (canopy exceeds 20 percent of total surface area) by areas where trees have become established or have encroached onto the site due to the absence of periodic fire. This state is dominated by eastern redcedar and/or Rocky Mountain juniper with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The plant community can develop into a closed canopy that impedes the reproductive capability of the major native perennial grass species. A single eastern redcedar tree with a 7 foot crown diameter eliminates the equivalent of 3 pounds of forage. Further, the forage potential of a pasture with 250 mature eastern redcedar trees per acre (or one tree every thirteen feet) is reduced by 50 percent. It is suggested that reducing stocking rates by 10 percent for every 50 trees per acre. The increase in tree canopy which is a result of a disruption of the natural, and human related fire regimes that occurred prior to European settlement in North America, which kept trees from encroaching much of the grasslands.
Community 4.1
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Big Bluestem
This plant community evolved due to the invasion of conifers, such as eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. This phase was a result of the absence of periodic fire. These events may cause a reduction in warm-season grasses and an increase in cool-season grasses and allow for the encroachment of conifers. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 50 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 30 percent trees. Dominant grasses and grass-likes include big bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats grama, porcupinegrass, western wheatgrass, and blue grama. As the canopy increases, warm-season grasses tend to decrease as the cool-season grasses increase. Forbs will be diverse.
Trees species will include eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grams Plant Community, coniferous trees have increased significantly and herbaceous component has decreased. This plant community is susceptible to the encroachment of eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper.
Community 4.2
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass
This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing or non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years). When compared to the 4.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Big Bluestem Plant Community, the amount of non-native invasive cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass have increased significantly. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, and blue grama. The dominance of Kentucky bluegrass is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface as well. Production is limited to the sod-forming species. The period that palatability is high is relatively short, as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases, energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by root depth of the dominate species. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.
Community 4.3
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper
This plant community phase is a result of no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years). Coniferous trees have increased significantly, and the herbaceous component has decreased. With the dominance of the coniferous trees such as eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper, the canopy covers the area and grass species are unable to survive. Grass production for livestock is severely limited. Prescribed burning before the juniper species reach maturity and are still susceptible to fire (< 5 foot in height), or mechanical brush management can be used to maintain or recover 4.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2
Non-use, no surface fire for 10 or more years (causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density), heavy, continuous grazing, or invasion of non-native plant species will shift this plant community to the 4.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.3
No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will shift this plant community to the 4.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
Non-use, no surface fire for 10 or more years (causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density), heavy, continuous grazing, or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native/Invaded State (State 2).
Transition T1B
State 1 to 4
No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and invasion of conifer will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Big Bluestem Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4).
Transition T2A & T2B
State 2 to 3
Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.1 Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass-Forbs/Shrubs Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3).
Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling.
Restoration pathway T3A
State 3 to 2
Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest), prescribed burning occurring every 3 to 5 years, and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies may lead this Invaded State (State 3) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).
Transition T3B
State 3 to 4
No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and invasion of conifer will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4).
Restoration pathway T4A
State 4 to 1
Brush management (which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers), coupled with prescribed burning every 3 to 5 years, and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies may lead this 4.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Big Bluestem Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4) over a threshold to the Reference State (State 1).
Restoration pathway T4B & T4D
State 4 to 2
Brush management (which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers), coupled with prescribed burning every 3 to 5 years, and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies may lead this 4.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).
Brush management (which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers), coupled with prescribed burning every 3 to 5 years, and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies may lead this 4.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).
Restoration pathway T4C
State 4 to 3
Brush management, which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, may lead this 4.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3).
