Choppy Sands
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
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Management practices/drivers
Select a transition or restoration pathway
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Transition T1A
Introduction of exotic cool-season grasses
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Transition T2A
Extended periods of moderate to heavy grazing
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Restoration pathway R3A
Long-term prescribed grazing with prescribed burning
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Transition T4A
Cessation of annual cropping
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No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
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Description
This state represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site prior to European influence. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included frequent fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing, coupled with weather events, dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. These factors likely caused the community to shift both spatially and temporally between three community phases.
Today the primary disturbance is from a lack of fire and concentrated livestock grazing. Grasses that were desirable for livestock and wildlife have declined along with a corresponding increase in the less desirable grasses.
Characteristics and indicators
Because of changes in disturbances and other environmental factors (particularly the widespread occurrence of exotic species), the Reference State is considered to no longer exist.
Resilience management
If intact, the reference state should probably be managed with current disturbance regimes which has permitted the site to remain in reference condition as well as maintaining the quality and integrity of associated ecological sites. Maintenance of the reference condition is contingent upon a monitoring protocol to guide management.
Submodel
Description
This state is similar to State 1: Reference State but has now been colonized by the exotic plants (typically cool- season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, annual bromes, and/or crested wheatgrass). Extended wet periods, particularly those including cool and wet springs, facilitate the invasion by these exotic cool-season grasses. Leafy spurge also commonly invades the site. Scattered small stands of shrubs including chokecherry, western snowberry, poison ivy, and other woody species are often interspersed among the grass dominated communities on the site.
The exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand, even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State.
Although the state may still be dominated by native grasses, an increase in these exotic cool-season grasses (and/or leafy spurge and other exotic plants) can be expected. These exotic cool-season grasses have been particularly and consistently invasive under extended periods of no use and no fire. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial techniques (e.g., prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed, monitored, and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 3: Invaded State can be expected.
Annual production of this state can be quite variable, in large part due to the amount of exotic cool-season grasses. However, as the exotic cool-season grasses increases, peak production will shift to earlier in the growing season.
Characteristics and indicators
The presence of trace amounts of exotic cool-season grasses indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2. The presence of exotic biennial or perennial leguminous forbs (i.e., sweet clover, black medic) may not, on their own, indicate a transition from State 1 to State 2 but may facilitate that transition.
Resilience management
To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial techniques (e.g., prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed, monitored, and evaluated with respect to that objective.
Grazing management should be applied that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. This may include: (1) early spring grazing when exotic cool-season grasses are actively growing and native cool-season grasses are dormant; (2) applying proper deferment periods allowing native grasses to recover and maintain or improve vigor; (3) adjusting overall grazing intensity to reduce excessive plant litter (above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 – see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet); (4) incorporating early heavy spring utilization which focuses grazing pressure on exotic cool-season grasses and reduces plant litter, provided that livestock are moved when grazing selection shifts from exotic cool-season grasses to native grasses.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that maintains or enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. Prescribed burns should be applied as needed to adequately reduce/remove excessive plant litter and maintain the competitive advantage for native species. Timing of prescribed burns (spring vs. summer vs. fall) should be adjusted to account for differences in annual growing conditions and applied during windows of opportunity to best shift the competitive advantage to the native species.
Submodel
Description
This state is the result of invasion and dominance by the exotic cool-season grasses (commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, annual bromes, and/or crested wheatgrass). These exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand, even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State; they may include Cuman ragweed, horsetail, silverleaf Indian breadroot, and white sagebrush. Prairie rose, leadplant, and poison ivy are common shrubs. Once the state is well established, prescribed burning and grazing techniques have been largely ineffective in suppressing or eliminating these species, even though some short-term reductions may appear successful.
This site is also frequently invaded by leafy spurge, often in combination with Kentucky bluegrass. Research indicates that leafy spurge alters soil microbiology in a manner which inhibits the growth of native species.
This effectively reduces any potential for restoration to a native dominated plant community without very significant intervention.
Annual production of this state may vary widely, in part due to variations in the extent of invasion by exotic cool-season grasses. However, annual production may be in the range of 800-2000 pounds per acre, with the exotic cool-season grasses accounting for the bulk of the production. Peak plant production occurs during early spring through early summer.
Characteristics and indicators
This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.
Resilience management
Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g., western snowberry) populations.
Submodel
Mechanism
This is the transition from the State 1: Reference State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State due to the introduction and establishment of exotic cool-season grasses (e.g., Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, annual bromes, crested wheatgrass). Leafy spurge may also invade the site. This transition was probably inevitable and corresponded to a decline in native warm-season and cool-season grasses; it may have been exacerbated by chronic season-long or heavy late season grazing. Complete rest from grazing and suppression of fire could also have hastened the transition. The threshold between states was crossed when Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, annual bromes, crested wheatgrass, or other exotic species became established on the site.
Constraints to recovery
Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.
Mechanism
This Transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 3: Invaded State typically occurs with extended periods of moderate to heavy grazing. These conditions often lead to the invasion by exotic cool-season grasses (such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, annual bromes, and/or crested wheatgrass).
Studies indicate this threshold may exist when both Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30% of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40% of the plant community composition. Similar thresholds may exist for the other exotic cool-season grasses. Curbing the invasion by Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, annual bromes, or crested wheatgrass through prescribed spring burns is limited by early green-up. Efficacy of prescribed grazing techniques have also been largely limited. The peak production period of this state is restricted due to the monotypic nature of the stands.
The invasion of leafy spurge onto this site can also initiate this pathway. As leafy spurge becomes established on the site, it limits use by livestock and changes the micro-climate at the soil surface, facilitating a shift from the native herbaceous species to a community dominated by introduced grasses and forbs.
Constraints to recovery
Variations in growing conditions (e.g., cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations.
Mechanism
This restoration pathway from the State 3: Invaded State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State may be accomplished with the implementation of prescribed grazing and prescribed burning, assuming there is an adequate component of native grasses to respond to the treatments.
Both prescribed grazing and prescribed burning are likely necessary to successfully initiate this restoration pathway, the success of which depends upon the presence of a remnant population of native grasses in Community Phase 3.1. That remnant population, however, may not be readily apparent without close inspection. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because many of the shrubs sprout profusely following one burn. Early season prescribed burns have been successful; however, fall burning may also be an effective technique.
The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage from the exotic cool-season grasses to the native cool-season grasses.
Context dependence
Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species.
Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g., September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g., available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation (e.g., “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g., backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses).
Mechanism
This transition is most commonly associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of range planting, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g., development of a tillage induced compacted layer (plow pan), erosion, fertility, and/or herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.
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