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Ecological site R066XY058NE

Loamy 22-25 P.Z.

Last updated: 11/18/2024
Accessed: 12/22/2024

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General information

Approved. An approved ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model, enough information to identify the ecological site, and full documentation for all ecosystem states contained in the state and transition model.

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Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 066X–Dakota-Nebraska Eroded Tableland

The Dakota-Nebraska Eroded Tableland (MLRA 66) occurs in north-central Nebraska (56 percent) and south-central South Dakota (44 percent). MLRA 66 is approximately 3.6 million acres and covers all or parts of twelve counties between the two states. The northern border of the MRLA bisects Tripp County, South Dakota, just south of the town of Winner. Valentine is in the northeastern corner of Cherry County, Nebraska and is located on the MLRA’s southwestern border. From there, the MLRA stretches southeast to the northwestern corner of Antelope County, Nebraska and the town of O’Neil, Nebraska in Holt County its southeastern border.

The MLRA occupies a smooth fluvial plain primarily consisting of broad intervalley areas with terraces, river breaks, and local badlands along the well-defined major drainages. The slopes range from nearly level tablelands to steep ridges and drainages. The elevation ranges from 1,970 to 2,950 feet. The Keya Paha, Elkhorn, and the Niobrara Rivers flow through the MLRA. The Niobrara is a designated National Scenic River.

Layers of shaly chalk and limestone marine sediments overlaying the Cretaceous Niobrara Formation make up the bulk of the MLRA, though the western and southwestern portions exhibit surface eolian deposits. The floors of the major drainages are underlain by deposits of alluvial sand and gravel. The dominant soil orders in this MLRA are mesic, ustic or aridic Mollisols and Entisols. Loamy and sandy are the primary soil textures in this landscape.

Twenty-seven percent of the land in this MLRA has been broken out of native prairie and farmed, while 66 percent of the grasslands remain intact. The remaining acres are divided between forest, urban development, and other uses. Livestock grazing, primarily by cattle, is a major industry. Corn, winter wheat, and grain sorghum are the primary commodity crops but a significant number of acres are planted to forage sorghum and alfalfa for harvest as hay. With limited irrigation available, and annual precipitation averaging from 18 inches in the west to 25 inches in the east, crop production is marginal across most of the MLRA.

The historical matrix vegetation type is mixed-grass prairie. Bluestems, prairie sandreed, sideoats grama, and blue grama make up the bulk of the warm-season species. Western wheatgrass, green needlegrass, and needle and thread are the dominant cool-season grasses. Large- and small-patch vegetative communities are found primarily along the riparian zones, on lowland sites, and in closed depressions. Woodlands make up about 3 percent of MLRA 66 and consist primarily of green ash, bur oak, and hackberry. Ponderosa pines can be found on steeper sites in the western portion of the landscape.

Wildlife flourishes in this combination of crop and grassland environments. In a landscape historically occupied by bison herds, white-tailed and mule deer are now the most abundant wild ungulates. Pronghorns also number among the remaining native grazers. A variety of smaller species, including coyote, raccoon, opossum, porcupines, muskrat, beaver, squirrel, prairie dogs, and mink, thrive in the region. Grassland birds, including several upland game birds, are common across the MLRA.

This landscape serves as a backdrop for a disturbance-driven ecosystem, evolving under the influences of herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Historically, these processes created a heterogeneous mosaic of plant communities and structure heights across the region. Any given site in this landscape burned every six to ten years, with most of the MLRA experiencing a six to eight year fire regime. The fires were caused by lightning strikes and were also set by Native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. Indigenous inhabitants understood the value of fire as a tool, and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing game animals such as bison and elk.

Land use patterns by post-European settlers have greatly altered the historical fire regime, allowing the expansion of woody species. Fragmentation of the native grasslands by conversion to cropland, transportation corridors, and other developments has contributed to disruption of the natural fire regime of this ecosystem. The most common encroaching woody species is eastern redcedar. While eastern redcedar is native to the landscape, the historic population in MLRA 66 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainageways that were protected from wildfire. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern redcedar as a primary component provide a seed source for the aggressive woody plant which further facilitates woody encroachment. Encroachment of native and introduced shrubs and trees into the native grasslands degrades wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock. Aggressive fire suppression policies have exacerbated this process to the point that shrub and tree encroachment is a major ecological threat to grasslands throughout most of the MLRA.

Classification relationships

►EPA◄
Level IV Ecoregions of the Conterminous United States
43—Northwestern Great Plains:
43i—Keya Paha Tablelands.

►USDA◄
Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas (USDA-NRCS, 2006)
Land Resource Region: G—Western Great Plains Range and Irrigated Region:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 66 Dakota-Nebraska Eroded Tableland.

Ecological site concept

There is a significant decline in precipitation from east to west across MLRA 66 which impacts plant community composition and annual production. For the purpose of ecological site development, the Loamy ecological site is divided into two ecological sites to address this precipitation gradient and its impacts to the site. The Loamy 22-25" PZ typically occurs east of a line that extends roughly from Johnstown, Nebraska to Witten, South Dakota.

The Loamy ecological site is located on upland landscapes and does not receive any additional moisture from runoff or overflow. The typical slopes range is from 0 to 20 percent. Soils are deep and formed in loess, loamy alluvium, or loamy residuum weathered from siltstone. Soil surface textures of silt loam, loam, or silty clay loam with surface layers ranging from 6 to 20 inches in thickness. Slopes range from 0 to 20 percent.

Vegetation in the Reference Plant Community (1.1) consists of a mix of cool- and warm-season grasses. Dominant grasses include big bluestem, green needlegrass, and western wheatgrass. Other significant grasses include needle and thread, sideoats grama, and little bluestem. Forbs are common and diverse. Shrubs include leadplant, western snowberry, and rose. The site is susceptible to invasion of non-native, cool-season grasses, especially Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome as well as eastern redcedar.

A significant portion of this site has been converted to commodity crop agriculture, primarily corn, wheat, milo, and alfalfa. Livestock grazing is the primary use of the intact native rangeland.

Associated sites

R066XY059NE	Thin Upland The Thin Upland ecological site is often found adjacent to but on a higher landscape position than Loamy 22-25 PZ ecological sites.
R066XY062NE	Shallow To Gravel The Shallow to Gravel ecological site is often found interspersed with Loamy 22-25 ecological sites.
R066XY066NE	Loamy Terrace The Loamy Terrace ecological site is often found adjacent to but on a lower landscape position than the Loamy 22-25 PZ ecological sites.

R066XY059NE

Thin Upland

The Thin Upland ecological site is often found adjacent to but on a higher landscape position than Loamy 22-25 PZ ecological sites.

R066XY062NE

Shallow To Gravel

The Shallow to Gravel ecological site is often found interspersed with Loamy 22-25 ecological sites.

R066XY066NE

Loamy Terrace

The Loamy Terrace ecological site is often found adjacent to but on a lower landscape position than the Loamy 22-25 PZ ecological sites.

Similar sites

R066XY066NE	Loamy Terrace The Loamy Terrace ecological site has similar surface soil textures but occurs in a lower landscape position compared to the Loamy 22-25 PZ ecological site.
R066XY059NE	Thin Upland The Thin Upland and Loamy 22-25" PZ ecological sites occur on similar landscape positions and have similar surface soil textures but Thin Upland ecological sites are calcareous at or near the surface while Loamy 22-25 PZ ecological sites are not.

R066XY066NE

Loamy Terrace

The Loamy Terrace ecological site has similar surface soil textures but occurs in a lower landscape position compared to the Loamy 22-25 PZ ecological site.

R066XY059NE

Thin Upland

The Thin Upland and Loamy 22-25" PZ ecological sites occur on similar landscape positions and have similar surface soil textures but Thin Upland ecological sites are calcareous at or near the surface while Loamy 22-25 PZ ecological sites are not.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	(1) Pascopyrum smithii (2) Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata

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Physiographic features

This site occurs on gently undulating to moderately steep landscapes, typically on rolling plains, loess hills, paleoterraces, hillslopes and flats, but occasionally on other landforms.

Figure 2. Block diagram for the Loamy site.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Paleoterrace (2) Plain (3) Loess hill (4) Hillslope (5) Flat
Runoff class	Negligible to high
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	1,250 – 3,000 ft
Slope	20%
Water table depth	80 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

MLRA 66 is considered to have a continental climate with cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature may also abound. The climate is the result of this MLRA’s location near the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the northern Great Plains and the winds move freely across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.

Annual precipitation ranges from 18 to 25 inches per year. The normal average annual temperature is about 48°F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 19°F (Bonesteel, SD) to about 23°F (Ainsworth, NE). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 73°F (Harrington, SD) to about 75°F (Gregory, SD). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 54°F. This large annual range attests to the continental nature of the climate this area. Hourly winds average about ten miles per hour annually, ranging from about 11 miles per hour during the spring to about nine miles per hour during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 miles per hour.

Growth of native cool-season plants begins mid to late March and continues to late June. Native warm-season plants begin growth in early May and continue to late August. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	116-128 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	136-148 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	25-26 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	113-129 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	134-152 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	24-26 in
Frost-free period (average)	122 days
Freeze-free period (average)	143 days
Precipitation total (average)	25 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 8. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) GREGORY [USC00393452], Gregory, SD
(2) NEWPORT [USC00255925], Newport, NE
(3) ATKINSON 3SW [USC00250420], Atkinson, NE
(4) O NEILL [USC00256290], Oneill, NE
(5) NIOBRARA [USC00255960], Niobrara, NE
(6) LYNCH [USC00255040], Lynch, NE
(7) BUTTE [USC00251365], Butte, NE
(8) FAIRFAX #2 [USC00392822], Fairfax, SD

Soil features

Loamy 22-25" PZ ecological sites occur on deep to very deep, well drained soils formed in loess, loamy alluvium, or loamy residuum weathered from siltstone. Soils typically have a dark surface layer that ranges from 6 to 20 inches thick. The soil surface textures include loam, silt loam, or clay loam. Slopes range from 0 to 20 percent.

The soil surface is stable and intact and the site should show slight to no evidence of rills, wind scoured areas or pedestalled plants. Water flow paths are broken and should not be distinguishable. Litter falls in place. Sub-surface soil layers are not restrictive to water movement and root penetration. These soils are susceptible to water erosion when cover is absent. The hazard of water erosion increases on slopes greater than 10 percent.

Reliance, Jansen, and Ree are the major series correlated to this site. Brocksburg, Kadoka, Keya, Loretto, Nora, Onita, and Paka are also correlated to the site. More information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more detail specific to your location or visit Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov).

Figure 9. Jansen series profile

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Loess (2) Alluvium (3) Residuum
Surface texture	(1) Silty clay loam (2) Loam (3) Silt loam
Family particle size	(1) Loamy
Drainage class	Well drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to moderate
Soil depth	40 – 80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	2%
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (Depth not specified)	4.4 – 8.4 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (Depth not specified)	18%
Electrical conductivity (Depth not specified)	2 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (Depth not specified)	2
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (Depth not specified)	5.1 – 9
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	19%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	2%

Ecological dynamics

Loamy 22-25" PZ ecological sites developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, sporadic natural or man-caused wildfire, and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. This continues to be a disturbance driven site with the primary disturbances being herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short-term weather variations, impacts of native and exotic plant and animal species, and management actions.

One of the primary impacts to the Loamy 22-25" PZ site introduced by European settlers is season-long, continuous grazing by domestic livestock. This management practice causes the repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of individual warm-season tallgrasses. The resulting reduction of the ability of the plants to harvest sunlight depletes the root reserves, subsequently decreasing the root mass. This negatively impacts the ability of the plants to compete for life-sustaining nutrients, resulting in declining vigor and eventual mortality. The space created in the vegetative community is then occupied by a species that evades the negative grazing impacts by a growing season adaptation (such as a cool-season), a shorter structure, growing points that remain near ground level, or a reduced palatability mechanism.

The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted below and includes a Reference State (1), a Native/Invaded Grass State (2), an Invaded Grass State (3), a Shortgrass Sod State (4), an early Seral State (5), an Invaded Woody State (6), and a Sodbusted State (7). Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to the alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The primary properties observed to determine this change are soil stability, vegetative communities, and the hydrologic cycle. Each state may have one or more plant communities that fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and climatic and local fluctuations in the precipitation regime. The processes that cause the movement between the states and communities are discussed in more detail in the state and community descriptions following the diagram.

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference Community (1.1). It has been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts have been used as well. Plant communities, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience.

State and transition model

Custom diagram

Standard diagram

Figure 10. State and Transition Model Diagram. MLRA 66, Loamy 22-25" PZ Ecological Site.

Figure 11. State and Transition Model Legend. MLRA 66, Loamy 22-25" PZ Ecological Site.

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

T1A	-	Repeated seasonal grazing in summer or prolonged (> 10 years) non-use with no fire with invasion of non-native, cool-season grasses.
T1B	-	Long term (> 10 years) continuous season long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
T1C	-	Long-term (> 10 years) heavy grazing or other heavy disturbance.
T1D	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T1E	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R2A	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing during spring or spring and fall.
T2A	-	Continued invasion of non-native cool-season grasses facilitated by seasonal grazing in summer, continuous season long grazing, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. Non-use with no fire.
T2B	-	Long-term (>10 years) seasonal grazing during the spring months.
T2C	-	Long-term (> 10 years) heavy grazing or other heavy disturbance.
T2D	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T2E	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R3A	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing. This transition may not be feasible.
T3A	-	Long-term (> 10 years) heavy grazing or other heavy disturbance.
T3B	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T3C	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R4A	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing. This transition may not be feasible.
R4B	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing. This transition may not be feasible.
T4A	-	Long-term (> 10 years) heavy grazing or other heavy disturbance.
T4B	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T4C	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T5A	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T5B	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R6A	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R6B	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R6C	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R6D	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R6E	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R6F	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
T7A	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reference Community

1.2. At-Risk Community

1.3. Managed Warm-Season Grass Community

1.1A	-	Grazing or haying with inadequate growing-season recovery periods.
1.1B	-	Prescribed burning and prescribed grazing timed to favor warm-season grasses.
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with adequate growing-season recovery periods.
1.3A	-	Prescribed grazing with appropriate stocking rates, timing of grazing, and adequate growing-season recovery periods.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Native Cool-Season/Invasive Cool-Season Grass Community

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Invaded Grass Community

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Shortgrass Sod Community

State 5 submodel, plant communities

5.1. Shortgrass/Annuals Community

State 6 submodel, plant communities

6.1. Invaded Woody Community

State 7 submodel, plant communities

7.1. Reseeded Native Grass Community

7.2. Seeded Pasture Community

7.3. Natural Reclamation Community

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State (1) describes the range of vegetative communities that occur on the Loamy 22-25" PZ ecological site where the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes is mostly intact. The Reference State developed under the combined influences of climatic conditions, periodic fire activity, grazing by large herbivores, and impacts from small mammals and insects. High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production and overall soil quality. The Reference State includes the Reference Community (1.1), the At-Risk Community (1.2), and the Managed Warm-Season Grass Community (1.3). The Reference Community (1.1) serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or closely mimicked by management practices. The At-Risk Community results from management actions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community. The Managed Warm-Season Grass Community occurs when grazing and prescribed burning are timed to reduce cool-season grasses and favor warm-season grasses. All community phases are susceptible to eastern redcedar invasion and subject to crossing a threshold into the Invaded Woody State (4).

Dominant plant species

green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass

Community 1.1
Reference Community

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference or Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass (Nassella viridula-Andropogon gerardii-Pascopyrum smithii) Community (1.1). This plant community serves as a description of the native plant community that occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or are closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and to fire and grazing events. This site developed with grazing by large herbivores and is well suited for grazing by domestic livestock. This plant community is dominated by cool-season rhizomatous and bunchgrasses. Warm-season, tall- and midgrasses are subdominant. The principal grasses are green needlegrass, needleandthread, western wheatgrass, big bluestem, and little bluestem. Grama grasses and sedges occur as an understory. Common forbs include white sagebrush, dotted blazing star, prairie coneflower, goldenrod and scurfpea. Leadplant and rose are common shrubs, with western snowberry occurring in patches across the site. The potential vegetation is 80 to 90 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 5 to 10 percent shrubs. Natural fire played a significant role in the succession of this site by limiting the extent of eastern redcedar. Wildfires have been actively controlled in recent times, allowing eastern redcedar encroachment. This plant community can be found on areas that are managed with prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, and may be found on areas receiving occasional periods of short-term rest. This resilient community is well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. This community is drought tolerant due to high plant species diversity and the resulting varied root structures. Individual species can vary greatly in production depending on the timing and amount of precipitation, and temperature fluctuations. Plant diversity promotes strong tolerance to drought, site and soil stability, a functional hydrologic cycle, a high degree of biotic integrity, and high soil quality.

Dominant plant species

green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1600	2635	3550
Forb	150	233	325
Shrub/Vine	150	232	325
Total	1900	3100	4200

Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6635, Eroded Tableland, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	10	25	30	15	5	5	5

Community 1.2
At-Risk Community

Figure 14. Loamy 22-25 PZ Ecological Site, At-Risk Community (1.2), Knox County, Nebraska.

The At-Risk or Blue Grama-Western Wheatgrass (Bouteloua gracilis-Andropogon smithii) Community (1.2) develops under continuous seasonal grazing, continuous season-long grazing, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing-season recovery periods. The potential vegetation is made up of 80 to 90 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 to 15 percent forbs and 5 to10 percent shrubs. The dominant grasses and grasslikes include blue grama, western wheatgrass, and threadleaf sedge. Other grasses may include needleandthread, buffalograss, sideoats grama, prairie Junegrass, and little bluestem. The dominant forbs include white sagebrush, goldenrod, scurfpea, cuman ragweed, tarragon, and scarlet globemallow. Dominant shrubs in this community include western snowberry and wild rose. Prairie sagewort may also be present in significant amounts. Compared to the Reference Community (1.1), the warm-season shortgrass component has increased. The cool-season needle grasses and the warm-season tall- and midgrasses have decreased. While plant diversity is relatively high, the structure of the community is dominated by shortgrasses. Soil erosion is low. Because of the sod forming growth form of the shortgrass species, water infiltration is reduced and runoff is moderate. This community is susceptible to invasion non-native, cool-season grasses and annual forbs. The dominant herbaceous species are very adapted to grazing. As the management system continues cool-season bunchgrasses and warm-season tall- and midgrasses will continue to decrease and warm-season shortgrasses, grass-likes, and western wheatgrass will continue to increase.

Dominant plant species

blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), other herbaceous

Figure 15. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1370	1956	2525
Forb	115	240	375
Shrub/Vine	115	180	250
Tree	0	24	50
Total	1600	2400	3200

Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6635, Eroded Tableland, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	10	25	30	15	5	5	5

Community 1.3
Managed Warm-Season Grass Community

Prescribed grazing and burning timed to reduce the cool-season component and favor the warm-season grasses will result in the Managed Warm-Season Grass Community (1.3). This community exhibits a significant increase in big bluestem as compared to the Reference Community and as the management continues, big bluestem will dominate the plant community. Community dynamics, nutrient cycle, hydrologic cycle, and energy flow are functioning at the site's potential. Plant litter is evenly distributed with little movement and plant mortality is low.

Dominant plant species

big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass

Figure 17. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	2450	3060	3650
Forb	175	270	375
Shrub/Vine	175	270	375
Total	2800	3600	4400

Figure 18. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6637, Eroded Tableland, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	8	15	24	23	15	5	5

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

A shift from the Reference Community (1.1) to the At-Risk Community (1.2) occurs with continuous season-long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing-season recovery periods. Repetitive haying without allowing adequate recovery periods during the growing season will also move the Reference Community to the At-Risk Community.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Prescribed grazing and burning timed to reduce cool-season grasses and favor warm-season grasses will create the Managed Warm-Season Grass Community (1.3). Prescribed burning early in the spring followed by spring grazing of the new cool-season growth and deferment as the warm-season grasses begin their growth will reduce the vigor of the cool-season grasses and increase the vigor of the warm-season grasses.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods will return the At-Risk Community (1.2) to the Reference Community (1.1). Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Adopting a management strategy which favors both cool- and warm-season grasses by integrating adequate growing-season deferment at alternating time frames throughout the grazing season and implementing prescribed burning at various times throughout the growing season will move the Managed Warm-Season Grass Community (1.3) to the Reference Community (1.1).

State 2
Native/Invaded Grass State

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) has been degraded from the Reference State (1) and much of the native grass community has been replaced by cool-season grasses. Non-native, cool-season grasses have invaded the plant community and are more than 15 percent of the plant community composition by weight. This plant community developed under repeated seasonal grazing during the summer or under extended periods (more than ten years) of non-use with no fire. Extended periods of non-use cause a thick litter layer to develop. This thatch layer favors cool-season species and the invasion of non-native, cool-season grasses, especially Kentucky bluegrass. Dominant grasses include Kentucky bluegrass, western wheatgrass, needle and thread, and green needlegrass. Cuman ragweed, scurfpeas, white sagebrush and verbenas are common as are snowberry, rose and plains prickly pear. The loss of tall- and midgrasses negatively impacts energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration is reduced due to the shallow root system and rapid runoff characteristics of this plant community. As the management continues, the plant community will become dominated by non-native cool-season grasses, sedges, and annuals causing the transition to the Invaded Grass State (3). The Native/Invaded Grass State includes the Native Cool-Season-Invasive Cool-Season Grass Community (2.1).

Dominant plant species

western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Community 2.1
Native Cool-Season/Invasive Cool-Season Grass Community

In the Native Cool-Season/Invasive Cool-Season Grass or Western Wheatgrass-Needle and Thread-Kentucky Bluegrass (Pascopyrum smithii-Hesperostipa comata-Poa pratensis) Community (2.1), the more palatable cool-season grasses have decreased and the warm-season tall- and midgrasses have been reduced to remnant populations by continued defoliation during their critical growth periods. Initially, the dominant grasses include Kentucky bluegrass, western wheatgrass, needleandthread, and green needlegrass. Other grasses may include blue grama, buffalograss, threeawn, and prairie Junegrass. Sedges flourish in the understory. Forbs include cuman ragweed, scurfpeas, white sagebrush, and verbenas and shrubs include snowberry, rose, and plains pricklypear. As the current management continues, non-native grasses increase, replacing native cool-season grasses. Compared to the Reference Community (1.1), native, cool-season bunchgrasses and warm-season tall- and midgrasses have decreased, plant diversity has declined, infiltration has decreased, and runoff has increased. Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome have become stablished on the site and these nonnative cool-season grasses are typically 15 percent or more of the plant community composition by weight. With continued, repeated seasonal grazing during the summer or extended periods of nonuse with no fire, non-native cool-season grasses will continue to increase. Cool, moist climatic conditions also tend to increase the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass. Soil erosion remains low. Soil health is affected by reduced efficiency in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles as a result of decreases in plant litter and rooting depths. Total annual vegetative production declines significantly. When Kentucky bluegrass is dominant due to nonuse with no fire, the increasing thatch layer inhibits water infiltration and increases runoff. This plant community is resistant to change, and if disturbed, it is resilient. Kentucky bluegrass increases under grazing pressure. If the management continues, the plant community will become dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, and annual bromes, the site will transition to the Invaded Grass State (3).

Dominant plant species

western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), other herbaceous
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), other herbaceous
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), other herbaceous
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), other herbaceous

State 3
Invaded Grass State

The Invaded Grass State (3) occurs when non-native cool-season grasses dominate the site and are more than 30 percent of the plant community composition by weight. Smooth brome tends to dominate the site with long term heavy grazing. Kentucky bluegrass tends to dominate the site when the site is unused and fire is also eliminated from the system due to the buildup of thatch which effectively prevents other plants from establishing. The loss of warm-season, tall- and midgrasses and increase of non-native cool-season grasses has negatively impacted energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration is reduced due to the shallow root system and rapid runoff characteristics of the current plant community. Long-term (more than 15 years) prescribed grazing which includes concentrated grazing in the spring and fall and no grazing during the summer months may restore the plant community to the Native/Invaded State (2). The feasibility of this restoration depends upon the amount of native grasses remaining in the plant community. The fewer native grasses present, the less feasible the restoration. The Invaded Grass State includes the Invaded Grass Community (3.1).

Dominant plant species

Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

Community 3.1
Invaded Grass Community

The Invaded Grass or Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Brome (Poa pratensis-Bromus inermis) Community (3.1) developed with no use and no fire or with continuous season long grazing or continuous seasonal summer grazing. The plant community is dominated by non-native cool-season grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass or smooth brome. Western wheatgrass and other native cool-season grasses may be present. Forbs present typically include white sagebrush, goldenrod, scurfpea, and Cuman ragweed. This plant community is resistant to change. Infiltration is moderately reduced while runoff has increased. Soil erosion is low. Plant diversity is significantly reduced. When the plant community is dominated by smooth brome production can be high but smooth brome matures early in the growing season and is palatable for a relatively brief period of time. Production can be increased significantly when the site is managed as pastureland with prescribed grazing, herbaceous weed control, and fertilization.

Dominant plant species

smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

State 4
Shortgrass Sod State

In the Shortgrass Sod State (4) most of the native warm-season tall- and midgrasses and cool-season bunchgrasses have been replaced by warm-season shortgrasses and sedges. The loss of the warm-season tall- and midgrass and the cool-season bunchgrasses has negatively impacted energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration has been reduced while runoff has been increased due to the shallow root systems of existing plant community. The Shortgrass Sod State includes the Shortgrass Sod Community (4.1).

Dominant plant species

blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Fendler's threeawn (Aristida purpurea var. fendleriana), grass
threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous

Community 4.1
Shortgrass Sod Community

The Shortgrass Sod or Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge (Bouteloua gracilis-Carex filifolia) Community (4.1) develops with heavy continuous season-long grazing or repeated seasonal grazing, especially when grazing occurs in the spring and early summer. It can also develop when heavy rotational grazing with inadequate recovery periods. Blue grama, sedges, and buffalograss are the dominant species. Minor species include western wheatgrass, threeawn, needle and thread, and sand dropseed. Forbs include Cuman ragweed, white sagebrush, curlycup gumweed, and tarragon. Prairie sagewort and pricklypear are the dominant shrubs. When compared to the Reference Community (1.1), blue grama and buffalograss have increased significantly. The tallgrasses, if present, are remnants. Midgrasses, other than sand dropseed, are present only in trace amounts. Annual production has decreased significantly. This plant community is resistant to change. The dominant species tolerate overgrazing and develop a dense sod which prevents the establishment other species. Bare ground is usually less than 10 percent. Infiltration has decreased and runoff has increased. Soil erosion is low due to the sod forming habit of blue grama and threadleaf sedge. This could be advantageous for heavy use areas such as calving and lambing units since the grazing tolerant species will control erosion. In these situations, however, nutrient runoff is a potential resource concern.

Dominant plant species

blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), other herbaceous

Figure 19. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	770	1148	1625
Forb	65	140	215
Shrub/Vine	65	105	145
Tree	0	7	15
Total	900	1400	2000

State 5
Early Seral State

The Early Seral State (5) occurs with long term, heavy, concentrated, continuous, season long grazing. Palatable warm-season grasses have been eliminated from plant community and have been replaced by unpalatable warm-season grasses, such as Fendler's threeawn, and annual grasses, such as cheatgrass. In some cases, remnant grasses may be present where protected from grazing, such as within the shrub canopy. Litter levels are low and there is a significant amount of bare ground. Runoff is high and water infiltration is low. Soil erosion through both wind and water has increased significantly when compared to the other herbaceous states. Biotic integrity, hydrologic function, and site stability have been severely degraded. The Early Seral State includes the Shortgrass/Annuals Community (5.1).

Dominant plant species

prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida), shrub
Fendler threeawn (Aristida purpurea var. longiseta), grass
cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), grass

Community 5.1
Shortgrass/Annuals Community

The Shortgrass/Annuals or Threeawn-Cheatgrass (Aristida-Bromus tectorum) Community (5.1) developed under continuous heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances (e.g., heavy use areas, calving pastures, prairie dog towns, etc.). Dominant grasses include threeawn, cheatgrass, and rosettegrass. Blue grama, buffalograss, western wheatgrass, sixweeks fescue, and sedges may also be present. Forbs include white sagebrush, fetid marigold, Cuman ragweed, pussytoes, bigbract verbena, and other early successional forbs. This plant community is susceptible to invasion of Canada thistle and other non-native species due to the high percentage of bare ground. The potential plant community contains 80 to 85 percent grasses and grass-likes and 15 to 20 percent forbs. Compared to the Reference Community (1.1) annual grasses and the percent of bare ground have increased. Native cool-season grasses have decreased and are now a minor component of the plant community. Native, warm-season tall- and midgrasses are typically absent but may be present at trace levels where protected from grazing such as in the shrub canopy. Plant diversity is low. This plant community is very resistant to change due to the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high due to the high amount of pare ground and the dominance of the dominance of shallow rooted plants. Runoff has increased and water infiltration has decreased. Significant inputs and time are required to move this plant community towards another community and will likely not be possible due to the loss of plant diversity with the corresponding loss of the seed bank, the decreased hydrologic function, and the amount of soil erosion that has occurred. Seeding or renovation is necessary to improve species composition and vegetative production. Renovation will move the plant community to the Sodbusted State (7). If management changes are not made following renovation, the vegetation will move to the Natural Reclamation Community (7.1) which is very similar to the Shortgrass/Annuals Community.

Dominant plant species

prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida), shrub
Fendler's threeawn (Aristida purpurea var. fendleriana), grass
prairie threeawn (Aristida oligantha), grass
cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), grass
fetid marigold (Dyssodia papposa), other herbaceous
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
bigbract verbena (Verbena bracteata), other herbaceous

State 6
Invaded Woody State

The Invaded Woody State (6) is the result of woody encroachment. Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet, the threshold to the Invaded Woody State has been crossed. Woody species are increasing due to the lack of prescribed fire, brush management, or other woody tree removal. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, reduced diversity of functional and structural groups, reduced forage production, and reduced soil quality. Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move this state toward a grass dominated state. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2), Invaded Grass State (3), Shortgrass Sod State (4), Early Seral State (5), or Sodbusted State (7) cannot transition to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur. The Invaded Woody State includes the Invaded Woody Community (6.1).

Dominant plant species

eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Community 6.1
Invaded Woody Community

The Invaded Woody or Eastern Redcedar-Ponderosa Pine (Juniperus virginiana-Pinus ponderosa) Community (6.1) has at least 15 percent canopy cover of eastern redcedar or ponderosa pine. Encroaching trees are primarily eastern redcedar but may include ponderosa pine or deciduous trees and shrubs. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern redcedar and, when conditions are conducive to germination, ponderosa pine seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Historically, periodic fire prevented woody species encroachment confining ponderosa pine and juniper to ridges and the steepest portions of the site. Fire suppression facilitates the encroachment of eastern redcedar, ponderosa pine, and other woody species onto the less steep portion of the Loamy 22-25 PZ ecological site. With long-term fire suppression, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will typically be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of coniferous species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a coniferous overstory. Eastern red cedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.hoesscanyonsburninggroup.com). Resprouting brush must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required . This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase in relation the plant community from which this plant community originated. The hydrologic function is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is typically increased because of a lack of herbaceous cover and the rooting structure provided by the herbaceous species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.

Dominant plant species

eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

State 7
Sodbusted State

The threshold to the Sodbusted State (7) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. If farming operations are suspended, the site can seeded to native grasses and forms resulting in the Reseeded Native Grass Community (7.1), be seeded to a tame pasture forage mixture resulting in the Seeded Pasture Community (7.2) or be abandoned with no seeding which will result in the Natural Reclamation Community (7.3). Permanent alterations of the soil, plant community, and hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Community 7.1
Reseeded Native Grass Community

The Reseeded Native Grass Community (7.1) does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, fertility management, and past grazing management. Native range and grasslands seeded to native species are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, and grass species seeded. Prescribed grazing including appropriate utilization levels, adequate growing-season recovery periods, and timing of grazing that favor the productivity, health, and vigor of the seeded species is required to maintain this community. Periodic prescribed burning and brush management may also be needed.

Community 7.2
Seeded Pasture Community

The Seeded Pasture Community (7.2) does not contain native remnants and varies considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment. There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the level of management and species seeded. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production. Fertilization, weed management, and prescribed grazing including appropriate utilization levels, adequate growing-season recovery periods, and timing of grazing that favor the productivity, health, and vigor of the seeded species are required to maintain this community. Periodic prescribed burning and brush management may also be needed.

Community 7.3
Natural Reclamation Community

The Natural Reclamation Community (7.3) consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plowpan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a resource concern. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Repeated continuous seasonal grazing during the summer months or rotational summer grazing with inadequate recovery periods will cause the Reference State (1) to lose a significant portion of warm-season tall- and midgrass species and cross a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2). Extended periods (greater than ten years) of non-use with no fire favors cool-season species and the invasion of Kentucky bluegrass and also facilitates this transition. Annual haying conducted during the same time-frame each summer will also cause this transition. Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root-matting presence of sod-forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper-penetrating root systems, soil structure and biological integrity are degraded. Once this occurs, it may not be possible to return to the Reference State (1).

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

The Reference State (1) can transition to the Shortgrass Sod State (4) with long term (more than ten years), heavy, continuous, season long grazing or heavy, rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. Continuous, heavy seasonal grazing (grazing during the same time each year) in the spring and early summer will also case this transition. Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root-matting presence of sod-forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper-penetrating root systems, soil structure and biological integrity may be degraded to the point that recovery is unlikely. Once this occurs, it is highly unlikely that grazing management alone will return the community to the Reference State.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

The Reference State (1) will transition to the Early Seral State (5) when management consists of long term (more than ten years), concentrated, heavy grazing (continuous or rotational with inadequate growing season recovery periods). This transition may also occur with severe defoliation from rodents or other heavy disturbance.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 6

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Reference State (1) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (6).

Transition T1E
State 1 to 7

The Reference State (1) is significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, soil, and hydrology of the system makes restoration unlikely.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Long-term (more than 15 years or more) prescribed grazing timed to coincide with the rapid growth phase of the cool-season grasses with appropriate stocking rates and adequate growing season recovery periods will return the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to the Reference State (1). The length of time required depends upon the amount of native grasses remaining in the plant community. Appropriately timed prescribed burning may accelerate this process. This restoration may not be feasible if there is an inadequate amount of native plants remaining in the plant community or if the soil stability or hydrologic function are too impaired.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Continued seasonal, continuous season long, or rotational summer grazing with inadequate recovery periods will cause the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to lose most, if not all, warm-season tall- and midgrasses and native, cool-season grasses and cross a threshold to the Invaded Grass State (3). Extended periods of non-use with no fire also facilitates this transition as this favors cool-season species and further invasion of non-native cool-season grasses. Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root-matting presence of sod-forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper-penetrating root systems, soil structure and biological integrity may be degraded to the point that recovery is unlikely. Once this occurs, it is highly unlikely that grazing management alone will return the community to the Native/Invaded Grass State.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) will transition to the Shortgrass Sod State (4) with long-term (more than ten years) continuous seasonal grazing (grazing during the same time each year) in the spring. Heavy, rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods may also cause this change. Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root-matting presence of sod-forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper-penetrating root systems, soil structure and biological integrity may be degraded to the point that recovery is unlikely. Once this occurs, it is highly unlikely that grazing management alone will return the community to the Native/Invaded Grass State.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) will transition to the Early Seral State (5) when management consists of long term (more than ten years), concentrated, heavy grazing (continuous or rotational with inadequate growing season recovery periods). This transition may also occur with severe defoliation from rodents or other heavy disturbance.

Transition T2D
State 2 to 6

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (6).

Transition T2E
State 2 to 7

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) is significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, soil, and hydrology of the system makes restoration unlikely.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

The Invaded Grass State (3) can transition to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) with long term (more than fifteen years) seasonal prescribed grazing in the spring or in the spring and fall, the amount of non-native cool-season grasses can be reduced and be replaced by native grasses. This restoration is only possible if adequate native grasses are present in the plant community. If native grasses have been eliminated, or nearly eliminated, from the plant community, this restoration will not be possible.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 5

The Invaded Grass State (3) will transition to the Early Seral State (5) when management consists of long term (more than ten years), concentrated, heavy grazing (continuous or rotational with inadequate growing season recovery periods). This transition may also occur with severe defoliation from rodents or other heavy disturbance.

Transition T3B
State 3 to 6

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Invaded Grass State (3) to transition the Invaded Woody State (6).

Transition T3C
State 3 to 7

The Invaded Grass State (3) is significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, soil, and hydrology of the system makes restoration unlikely.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

Long term (more than fifteen years) prescribed grazing may move the Shortgrass Sod State (4) to the Reference State (1) if adequate amounts of native, warm-season, tall- and midgrasses and native cool-season grasses remain in the plant community. This transition may not be feasible when Kentucky bluegrass is a significant portion of the plant community or when the warm-season tall- and midgrasses and native cool-season grasses have been reduced to trace levels.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2

Long term (more than fifteen years) prescribed grazing may move the Shortgrass Sod State (4) to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) if adequate amounts of native, warm-season, tall- and midgrasses and native cool-season grasses remain in the plant community. This transition may not be feasible when Kentucky bluegrass is a significant portion of the plant community or when the native cool-season grasses have been reduced to trace levels.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 5

The Shortgrass Sod State (4) will transition to the Early Seral State (5) when management consists of long term (more than ten years), concentrated, heavy grazing (continuous or rotational with inadequate growing season recovery periods). This transition may also occur with severe defoliation from rodents or other heavy disturbance.

Transition T4B
State 4 to 6

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Shortgrass Sod State (4) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (6).

Transition T4C
State 4 to 7

The Shortgrass Sod State (4) is significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 6

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Early Seral State (5) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (6).

Transition T5B
State 5 to 7

The Early Seral State (5) is significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture.

Restoration pathway R6A
State 6 to 1

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (6) to the Reference State (1). The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Reference State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2), Invaded Grass State (3), Shortgrass Sod State (4), Early Seral State (5), or the Sodbusted State (7) cannot be restored to the Reference State through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R6B
State 6 to 2

Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (6) toward the Native/Invaded Grass State (2). The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Reference State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State, Invaded Grass State (3), Shortgrass Sod State (4), Early Seral State (5), or the Sodbusted State (7), cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R6C
State 6 to 3

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (6) to the Invaded Grass State (3). The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Reference State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2), Invaded Grass State, Shortgrass Sod State (4), Early Seral State (5), or the Sodbusted State (7), cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R6D
State 6 to 4

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (6) to the Shortgrass Sod State (4). The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Reference State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2), Invaded Grass State (3), Shortgrass Sod State, Early Seral State (5), or the Sodbusted State (7), cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R6E
State 6 to 5

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (6) to the Early Seral State (5). The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Reference State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2), Invaded Grass State (3), Shortgrass Sod State (4), Early Seral State, or the Sodbusted State (7), cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R6F
State 6 to 7

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (6) to the Sodbusted State (7). The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Reference State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State 2), Invaded Grass State (3), Shortgrass Sod State (4), Early Seral State (5), or the Sodbusted State, cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Transition T7A
State 7 to 6

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Sodbusted State (7) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (6).

Additional community tables

Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			620–1550
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	310–930	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	155–465	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	62–310	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	31–93	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–62	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–62	–
2	Warm-Season Tallgrass			310–775
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	155–620	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–310	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–310	–
	composite dropseed	SPCOC2	Sporobolus compositus var. compositus	0–62	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–31	–
3	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grasses			155–465
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	155–465	–
4	Warm-Season Midgrass			155–465
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	155–465	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	62–310	–
	plains muhly	MUCU3	Muhlenbergia cuspidata	0–155	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	0–155	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–31	–
5	Warm-Season Shortgrass			62–217
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	62–217	–
	buffalograss	BODA2	Bouteloua dactyloides	0–155	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–31	–
6	Grass-Like			62–248
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	62–248	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–155	–
Forb
7	Forb			155–310
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–155	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	31–93	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	31–93	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	31–93	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	31–93	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–93	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	31–93	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	31–93	–
	scarlet globemallow	SPCO	Sphaeralcea coccinea	31–62	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	31–62	–
	large Indian breadroot	PEES	Pediomelum esculentum	0–62	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	0–62	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	31–62	–
	hairy false goldenaster	HEVI4	Heterotheca villosa	0–62	–
	groundplum milkvetch	ASCR2	Astragalus crassicarpus	0–62	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	31–62	–
	prairie clover	DALEA	Dalea	31–62	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–62	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–62	–
	Nuttall's sensitive-briar	MINU6	Mimosa nuttallii	0–62	–
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	0–31	–
	prairie groundsel	PAPL12	Packera plattensis	0–31	–
	American bird's-foot trefoil	LOUNU	Lotus unifoliolatus var. unifoliolatus	0–31	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–31	–
	lacy tansyaster	MAPI	Machaeranthera pinnatifida	0–31	–
	blue-eyed grass	SISYR	Sisyrinchium	0–31	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			155–310
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	31–155	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–155	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	62–155	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	31–93	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	31–93	–
	plains pricklypear	OPPO	Opuntia polyacantha	0–62	–

Table 10. Community 1.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			48–240
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	0–240	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–192	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–120	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	24–48	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–24	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–24	–
2	Warm-Season Tallgrass			24–120
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	24–120	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–72	–
	composite dropseed	SPCOC2	Sporobolus compositus var. compositus	0–48	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–24	–
3	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grasses			120–360
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	120–360	–
4	Warm-Season Midgrass			48–240
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	24–168	–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–120	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	0–24	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–24	–
5	Warm-Season Shortgrass			360–840
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	240–720	–
	buffalograss	BODA2	Bouteloua dactyloides	0–240	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–120	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–24	–
6	Grass-Like			48–288
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	48–288	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–120	–
7	Non-Native Cool-Season Grass			240–480
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	120–360	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	24–120	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–120	–
Forb
8	Forb			120–360
	sweetclover	MELIL	Melilotus	0–240	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–120	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	0–120	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	24–120	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	24–96	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	24–72	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	24–72	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	24–72	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	24–72	–
	curlycup gumweed	GRSQ	Grindelia squarrosa	0–72	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	24–48	–
	prairie clover	DALEA	Dalea	24–48	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	24–48	–
	yellow salsify	TRDU	Tragopogon dubius	24–48	–
	scarlet globemallow	SPCO	Sphaeralcea coccinea	0–24	–
	prairie groundsel	PAPL12	Packera plattensis	0–24	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	0–24	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–24	–
	large Indian breadroot	PEES	Pediomelum esculentum	0–24	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	0–24	–
	lacy tansyaster	MAPI	Machaeranthera pinnatifida	0–24	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrub			120–240
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	24–120	–
	plains pricklypear	OPPO	Opuntia polyacantha	0–72	–
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	24–72	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–72	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	24–48	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–48	–
Tree
10	Tree			0–48
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–24	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–24	–
	eastern redcedar	JUVI	Juniperus virginiana	0–24	–
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–24	–
	common hackberry	CEOC	Celtis occidentalis	0–24	–
	ponderosa pine	PIPO	Pinus ponderosa	0–24	–
	Rocky Mountain juniper	JUSC2	Juniperus scopulorum	0–24	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–24	–

Table 11. Community 1.3 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			360–720
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	180–540	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	72–360	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	72–360	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	36–72	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–72	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–36	–
2	Warm-Season Tallgrass			720–1260
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	360–1080	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	180–540	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	72–360	–
	composite dropseed	SPCOC2	Sporobolus compositus var. compositus	0–72	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–36	–
3	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grass			180–360
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	180–360	–
4	Warm-Season Midgrass			180–540
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	180–720	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	72–360	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	72–288	–
	plains muhly	MUCU3	Muhlenbergia cuspidata	0–180	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–36	–
5	Warm-Season Shortgrass			72–252
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	36–180	–
	buffalograss	BODA2	Bouteloua dactyloides	0–108	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–36	–
	Fendler threeawn	ARPUL	Aristida purpurea var. longiseta	0–36	–
6	Grass-Likes			36–180
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	36–180	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–180	–
Forb
7	Forbs			180–360
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–180	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	36–108	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	36–108	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	36–108	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	36–108	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–108	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	36–108	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	36–108	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	36–72	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	0–72	–
	prairie clover	DALEA	Dalea	36–72	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	36–72	–
	groundplum milkvetch	ASCR2	Astragalus crassicarpus	0–72	–
	hairy false goldenaster	HEVI4	Heterotheca villosa	0–72	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	36–72	–
	large Indian breadroot	PEES	Pediomelum esculentum	0–72	–
	Nuttall's sensitive-briar	MINU6	Mimosa nuttallii	0–72	–
	scarlet globemallow	SPCO	Sphaeralcea coccinea	36–72	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–72	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–72	–
	lacy tansyaster	MAPI	Machaeranthera pinnatifida	0–36	–
	American bird's-foot trefoil	LOUNU	Lotus unifoliolatus var. unifoliolatus	0–36	–
	prairie groundsel	PAPL12	Packera plattensis	0–36	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–36	–
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	0–36	–
	blue-eyed grass	SISYR	Sisyrinchium	0–36	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			180–360
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	72–180	–
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	36–180	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–180	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	36–108	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	36–108	–
	plains pricklypear	OPPO	Opuntia polyacantha	0–72	–

Table 12. Community 4.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Shortgrass			280–560
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	280–490	–
	buffalograss	BODA2	Bouteloua dactyloides	0–140	–
	Fendler threeawn	ARPUL	Aristida purpurea var. longiseta	14–140	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–28	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			0–70
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–42	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–42	–
3	Cool-Season Grass			0–70
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–42	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–28	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–14	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–14	–
4	Warm-Season Tallgrass			0–28
	composite dropseed	SPCO16	Sporobolus compositus	0–28	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–28	–
5	Grass-like			140–350
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	140–350	–
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	0–112	–
6	Non-Native Cool-Season Grass			140–420
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	140–420	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–70	–
	field brome	BRAR5	Bromus arvensis	0–70	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–28	–
Forb
7	Forb			70–210
	sweetclover	MELIL	Melilotus	0–140	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	0–112	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	14–70	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	14–42	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–42	–
	curlycup gumweed	GRSQ	Grindelia squarrosa	14–42	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	0–28	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–28	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	14–28	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	14–28	–
	yellow salsify	TRDU	Tragopogon dubius	0–14	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–14	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–14	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–14	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			70–140
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	28–112	–
	plains pricklypear	OPPO	Opuntia polyacantha	0–56	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–56	–
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	0–14	–
Tree
9	Tree			0–14
	Rocky Mountain juniper	JUSC2	Juniperus scopulorum	0–14	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–14	–
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–14	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–14	–
	eastern redcedar	JUVI	Juniperus virginiana	0–14	–
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–14	–
	common hackberry	CEOC	Celtis occidentalis	0–14	–
	ponderosa pine	PIPO	Pinus ponderosa	0–14	–

Interpretations

Animal community

LIVESTOCK - GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide year-long forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage may be lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep)requirements. The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season-long grazing under normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Production and Carrying Capacity*
Community 1.1, Reference Community: 3,100 lbs/acre, 0.85 AUM/acre
Community 1.2, At-Risk Community: 2,400 lbs/ac, 0.66 AUM/acre
Community 1.3, Managed Warm-Season Grass Community: 3,600 lbs/ac, 0.99 AUM/acre
Community 4.1, Shortgrass Sod Community: 1,400 lbs/ac, 0.39 AUM/ac

WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 66 lies primarily within the Mixed-grass prairie ecosystem. Though European settlers have converted about a quarter of this landscape to farmland, the majority of the prairie is still intact. This area still consists of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional wetlands and limited woody riparian corridors. These habitats historically provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects still provide a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrive in this landscape.

The Mixed-Grass Prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement, elimination of fire, overgrazing, and some habitat fragmentation significantly altered the appearance and functionality of the entire ecosystem. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free-roaming bison herds have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats that they provide. Fragmentation has reduced habitat quality for numerous area-sensitive species, as highlighted by the decline of the greater prairie chicken.

Historically, an ecological mosaic of the sites provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands. Most of these important habitat features and components are intact, providing upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds; nesting and escape cover for waterfowl; forbs and insects for brood-rearing habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores.

Disruption of the natural fire regime and lack of appropriate grazing management are the greatest threats to the ecosystem dynamics today. Tree and shrub encroachment from lack of fire creates habitat that favors generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove, and provides perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality on native bird populations. Introduced species such as smooth bromegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), and Canada thistle further degrade the biological integrity of many areas of the prairie.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site, and it is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B. Infiltration and runoff potential for varies from moderate to high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

For the interpretive plant community, rills and gullies should not typically be present. Water flow patterns should be barely distinguishable if at all present. Pedestals are only slightly present in association with bunchgrasses such as little bluestem. Litter typically falls in place, and signs of movement are not common. Chemical and physical crusts are rare to non-existent. Cryptogamic crusts are present but only cover 1-2 percent of the soil surface. Overall, this site has the appearance of being very stable and productive.

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting opportunities for upland game species. The wide variety of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

None present.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Other information

Field Offices (Counties)
Nebraska:
Ainsworth, (Brown, Keya Paha, and Rock)
Bloomfield, (Knox,)
Spencer (Boyd)
Neligh (Antelope)
O'Neill, (Holt)
Valentine, (Cherry)

South Dakota:
Burke, (Gregory)
Martin, (Bennett and Shannon)
Winner, (Tripp)
White River, (Mellette and Todd)

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data, and field observations from range- trained personnel.

Those involved in developing this site include Wayne Bachman, Soil Scientist, NRCS; Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Chuck Markley, Soil Scientist, NRCS; Anna Ferguson, Soil Conservationist, NRCS; Roger Hammer, Soil Scientist, NRCS; Dana Larsen, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Dave Schmidt, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS; Kim Stine, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS.

Other references

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska.(http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/)
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/national-range-and-pasture-handbook)
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Water and Climate Center. (http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/climate).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2021b. National Soil Information System. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/resources/education-and-teaching-materials/national-soil-information-system-nasis).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2021c. National soil survey handbook, title 430-VI. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/handbook/).
Soil Survey Staff. 2021. Web soil survey. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/)
USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA USA.
USDA, NRCS, various published Soil Surveys

Contributors

Stan Boltz
by Doug Whisenhunt
Nadine Bishop

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 11/18/2024

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to the members of the soils, local practitioners and technical teams, as well as the editor.

This Ecological Site was approved for publication in March of 2021.

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Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	Original Author: Stan Boltz Version V participants: Emily Helms, Nadine Bishop, Jeff Nichols
Contact for lead author	jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov
Date	11/18/2024
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site.
Presence of water flow patterns:
Typically, none. Water flow patterns are not expected on the more gentle slopes. On steeper slopes (>15 percent) water flow patterns may occur but will be barely visible and discontinuous.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Typically, none. Bunchgrasses may be slightly pedestalled (0.5 inch/1.25 cm) with no exposed roots on steeper slopes (greater than 15 percent), becoming more common as slopes become steeper
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is typically 5 percent or less. Multi-year drought and/or wildfire can increase bare ground to 10 percent for up to two years following the disturbance.

Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae).
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. Wind-scoured areas and depositional areas are not expected on this site.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Litter should fall in place. Slight amount of movement of fine litter (less than 12 inches) from water is possible, but not normal. Litter movement from wind is not expected.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability ratings should typically be 5 to 6, normally 6. Surface organic matter adheres to the soil surface. Soil surface fragments will typically retain structure indefinitely when dipped in distilled water.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
The A-horizon should be 6 to 20 inches (15-50 cm) thick. Soil is dark grayish brown, very dark grayish brown, or dark gray (values of 3 to 4) when dry and very dark grayish brown, very dark brown, or very dark gray (values of 2 or 3) when moist. Structure is typically weak fine granular or weak medium subangular blocky parting to weak medium and fine granular. Some soils are weak coarse blocky, weak medium platy, or weak coarse prismatic parting to weak fine or medium subangular blocky structure.

Major soil series correlated to the Loamy 22-25 PZ include Reliance, Jansen, Ree, Paka, Brocksburg, and Nora.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
The functional/structural groups provide a combination of rooting depths and structure which positively influences infiltration. Combination of shallow and deep rooted species (mid & tall rhizomatous and tufted perennial cool-season grasses) with fine and coarse roots positively influences infiltration. Invasion of introduced cool-season grasses such as annual bromes, Kentucky bluegrass, and smooth brome may have an adverse impact on infiltration and runoff. Woody encroachment may also negatively influence infiltration. Eastern redcedar encroachment may also negatively influence infiltration.

The expected composition of the plant community is 80 to 90 percent perennial grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 5 to 10 percent shrubs. The perennial grass and grass-like component is made up of C3 bunchgrasses (20-50%), C4 tallgrasses (10-20%), C3 rhizomatous grasses (5-15%), C4 midgrasses (5-15%), grass-likes (2-8%), and C4 shortgrasses (2-7%).
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. A compaction layer should not be present.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, C3 bunchgrass, 620-1550 #/ac, 20-50% (4 species minimum): green needlegrass, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, prairie Junegrass, Scribner’s rosettegrass.

Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, C4 shortgrass, 360-840 #/ac, 15-35% (1 species minimum): blue grama, buffalograss threeawn.
2. Non-native C3 grass, 240-480 #/ac, 10-20% (2 species minimum): Kentucky bluegrass, cheatgrass, smooth brome

Phase 1.3
1. Native, perennial, C4 tallgrass, 720-1260 #/ac, 20-35%(3 species minimum) : big bluestem, composite dropseed, Indiangrass, switchgrass.

Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, C4 tallgrass, 310-620 #/ac, 10-20% (1 species minimum): big bluestem, composite dropseed, Indiangrass, switchgrass.
2. Native, perennial, C3 rhizomatous grass, 155-465 #/ac, 5-15% (1 species minimum): western wheatgrass.
3. Native, perennial, C4 midgrass, 155-465 #/ac, 5-15% (2 species minimum): little bluestem, plains muhly, prairie dropseed, sideoats grama.

Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, C3 rhizomatous grass, 120-360 #/ac, 5-15% (1 species minimum): western wheatgrass.
2. Native forbs, 120-360 #/ac, 5-15% (9 species minimum): tarragon, goldenrod, western yarrow, Cuman ragweed, white heath aster, white sagebrush, dotted blazing star, prairie clover, upright prairie coneflower, and other forbs which vary from location to location.
3. Grass-likes, 48-288 #/ac, 2-12% (1 species minimum): threadleaf sedge, other sedges.

Phase 1.3
1. Native, perennial, C3 bunchgrass, 360-720#/ac, 10-20% (4 species minimum): green needlegrass, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, prairie Junegrass, Scribner’s rosettegrass.
2. Native, perennial, C4 midgrass, 180-540#/ac, 5-15% (3 species minimum): little bluestem, plains muhly, prairie dropseed, sideoats grama.

Other:
Minor - Phase 1.1
1. Native forbs, 155-310 #/ac, 5-10%: forbs present vary from location to location.
2. Shrubs, 155-310 #/ac, 5-10%: prairie sagewort, leadplant, plains pricklypear, rose, western snowberry.
3. Grass-likes, 62-248 #/ac, 2-8%: threadleaf sedge, other sedges.
4. Native, perennial, C4 shortgrass, 62-217 #/ac, 2-7%: blue grama, buffalograss.

Minor - Phase 1.2
1. Shrubs, 120-240#/ac, 5-10%: prairie sagewort, pricklypear, western snowberry, rose, leadplant.
2. Native, perennial, C3 bunchgrass, 48-240 #/ac, 2-10%: green needlegrass, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, prairie Junegrass, Scribner’s rosettegrass.
3. Native, perennial, C4 midgrass, 24-192 #/ac, 1-8%: little bluestem, plains muhly, prairie dropseed, sideoats grama.
4. Native, perennial, C4 tallgrass, 24-120 #/ac, 1-5%: big bluestem, composite dropseed, switchgrass

Minor - Phase 1.3
1. Native, perennial, C3 rhizomatous grass, 180-360#/ac, 5-10%: western wheatgrass.
2. Native forbs, 180-360#/ac, 5-10%: forbs present vary from location to location.
3. Native shrubs, 180-360#/ac, 5-10%: leadplant, western snowberry, prairie sagewort, rose, prickly pear and other shrubs which vary from location to location.
4. Native, perennial, C4 shortgrass, 72-252#/ac, 2-7%: blue grama, buffalograss, Fendler threeawn.
5. Grass-likes, 36-180 #/ac, 1-5%: threadleaf sedge, other sedges.

Trace - Phase 1.2
1. Trees, 0-48 #ac, 0-2%: Trees present will vary from location to location.

Additional:
The Reference Community (1.1) consists of eight F/S groups. These groups are, in order of relative abundance, native, perennial, C3, bunchgrass; native, perennial, C4, tallgrass; native, perennial, C4, midgrass = native, C3 rhizomatous grass; native forb = shrub; grass-like; native, perennial, C4 shortgrass.

The At Risk Community (1.2) also consists of nine F/S groups. These groups are, in order of relative abundance, native, perennial, C4 shortgrass; non-native, C3 grass = shrubs; native, C3 rhizomatous grass = native forb; grass-like; native, perennial, C3, bunchgrass; native, perennial, C4, midgrass; native, perennial, C4, tallgrass; and trees.

The Managed Warm-Season Grass Community (1.3) consists of eight groups which are native, perennial, C4, tallgrass; native, perennial, C3 bunchgrass; native, perennial, C4 midgrass; native, perennial, C3 rhizomatous grass = native forb = shrub; native, perennial C4 shortgrass; grass-likes.
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Bunch grasses have strong, healthy centers with few (less than 3 percent) dead centers. Shrubs may show some dead branches (less than 5 percent) as plants age.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter cover is evenly distributed throughout the site and is expected to be 80 to 90 percent and at a depth of 0.50 to 1.0 inch (1.3 to 2.6 cm). Litter cover during and following drought can range from 60 to 70 percent. Excessive Kentucky bluegrass litter may impact the functionality of the site.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
The representative value (RV) for annual production is 3,100 pounds per acre on an air dry weight basis. Low and High production years should yield 1,900 and 4,200 pounds per acre respectively.
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
No non-native invasive species are present. Annual bromes (cheatgrass and Japanese/field), leafy spurge, absinth wormwood, common mullein, sulphur cinquefoil, Canada thistle, smooth brome, Kentucky bluegrass, and eastern redcedar are known invasives that have the potential to become dominant or co-dominant on this site. Consult the state noxious weed and state watch lists for potential invasive species. Note: species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants.
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to recent weather conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.

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Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded Grass State

3. Invaded Grass State

4. Shortgrass Sod State

5. Early Seral State

6. Invaded Woody State

7. Sodbusted State

States 1, 5, 6 and 7 (additional transitions)

1. Reference State

5. Early Seral State

6. Invaded Woody State

7. Sodbusted State

States 2, 5, 6 and 7 (additional transitions)

2. Native/Invaded Grass State

5. Early Seral State

6. Invaded Woody State

7. Sodbusted State

States 3, 7 and 4 (additional transitions)

3. Invaded Grass State

7. Sodbusted State

4. Shortgrass Sod State

T1A	-	Repeated seasonal grazing in summer or prolonged (> 10 years) non-use with no fire with invasion of non-native, cool-season grasses.
T1B	-	Long term (> 10 years) continuous season long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
T1C	-	Long-term (> 10 years) heavy grazing or other heavy disturbance.
T1D	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T1E	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R2A	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing during spring or spring and fall.
T2A	-	Continued invasion of non-native cool-season grasses facilitated by seasonal grazing in summer, continuous season long grazing, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. Non-use with no fire.
T2B	-	Long-term (>10 years) seasonal grazing during the spring months.
T2C	-	Long-term (> 10 years) heavy grazing or other heavy disturbance.
T2D	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T2E	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R3A	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing. This transition may not be feasible.
T3A	-	Long-term (> 10 years) heavy grazing or other heavy disturbance.
T3B	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T3C	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R4A	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing. This transition may not be feasible.
R4B	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing. This transition may not be feasible.
T4A	-	Long-term (> 10 years) heavy grazing or other heavy disturbance.
T4B	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T4C	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T5A	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T5B	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R6A	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R6B	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R6C	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R6D	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R6E	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R6F	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
T7A	-	Woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reference Community

1.2. At-Risk Community

1.3. Managed Warm-Season Grass Community

1.1A	-	Grazing or haying with inadequate growing-season recovery periods.
1.1B	-	Prescribed burning and prescribed grazing timed to favor warm-season grasses.
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with adequate growing-season recovery periods.
1.3A	-	Prescribed grazing with appropriate stocking rates, timing of grazing, and adequate growing-season recovery periods.