Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site R071XY024NE
Subirrigated
Last updated: 1/08/2025
Accessed: 04/07/2025
General information
Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
- Basemap provided by ESRI. Sources: Esri, HERE, DeLorme, Intermap, increment P Corp., GEBCO, USGS, FAO, NPS, NRCAN, GeoBase, IGN, Kadaster NL, Ordnance Survey, Esri Japan, METI, Esri China (Hong Kong), swisstopo, MapmyIndia, © OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS User Community.
Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 071X–Central Nebraska Loess Hills
MLRA 71 is named “The Central Nebraska Loess Hills” and is located exclusively in Nebraska. The approximately 5.3 million acre landscape covers all or parts of 21 counties, primarily Custer, Dawson, Buffalo, Sherman, Howard, Valley, Greeley, and Hall. The physical appearance of the landscape is dominated by loess hills dissected by the North, Middle, and South Loup Rivers and their tributaries. The Platte River defines the southern border. The elevation in MLRA 71 ranges from over 3,000 to less than 1,700 feet above sea level, with average local relief stretching from 20 to 200 feet. Average annual precipitation ranges from 21 to 26 inches, with the number of freeze-free days averaging around 200.
Loess overlays the surface of almost all of the uplands in this MLRA. Alluvial clay, silt, sand, and gravel are deposited in the stream and river valleys and can be extensive in the major drainages. Terraces are common in the valleys along the river systems. The predominate soil orders are mesic, udic Mollisols and Entisols, commonly represented by the Coly, Uly, Cozad, Hord, Hall, and Holdrege soil series.
The matrix vegetation type is mixed-grass prairie, with big and little bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, and sideoats and blue grama making up the bulk of the warm-season species, while western wheatgrass is the dominant cool-season species. The primary large-patch vegetative component of the landscape is dominated by needle and thread, prairie sandreed, sand and little bluestem, and blue grama. The majority of the small-patch communities are associated with upland playas and the wetter sites found along the floodplains.
Forty four percent of the land in this MLRA has been broken out of native prairie and farmed; mostly corn, alfalfa, and some soybeans, while 48 percent of the grasslands remain intact. Livestock grazing, primarily cattle, is a major industry here. Wildlife flourishes in this combination of crop and grassland environment, with both mule and white-tailed deer being the most abundant wild ungulate. A variety of smaller species, including coyote, raccoon, opossum, porcupines, muskrat, beaver, squirrel, and mink thrive in the region, as well as a suite of grassland and upland birds. The rivers, streams, and lakes harbor excellent fisheries.
This landscape developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, and repeated natural or man-caused wildfire. Other biotic and abiotic factors also typically influence soil and site development. This is a disturbance driven ecosystem, evolving under the influences of herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Historically, these processes created a heterogenous mosaic of plant communities and structure heights across the region. Any given site in this landscape experienced fire every 7 to 9 years. The fires were caused both by lightning strikes, and were set by native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. These people understood the value of fire as a tool, and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided both excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing game animals such as bison and elk.
Fragmentation of the native grasslands by conversion to cropland, transportation corridors, and other development by European man has effectively disrupted the natural fire regime of this ecosystem. This has allowed encroachment by native and introduced shrubs and trees into the remnants of the native prairie throughout the MLRA. Aggressive fire suppression policies have exacerbated this process to the point that shrub and tree encroachment is a major ecological issue in the majority of both native and re-seeded grasslands.
Even as post European settlement's alteration of the fire regime allows the expansion of the woody component of the native prairie, introduction of eastern redcedar as a windbreak component further facilitates invasion by this species. While eastern redcedar is native to Nebraska, the historic population in MLRA 71 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainages that were subsequently insulated from fire, or non-existent. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern redcedar as a primary component has established a seed source for the aggressive woody plant. The ensuing encroachment into the native grasslands degrades the native wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock. However, since it is not a root-sprouter, eastern redcedar is very susceptible to fire when under six feet tall. Management with prescribed fire is exceedingly effective if applied before this stage. Larger eastern redcedars can also be controlled with fire but requires the use of specially designed ignition and suppression techniques.
Classification relationships
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): Major Land Resource Area (MLRA)71. (USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2006)
Revision Notes:
A PROVISIONAL ECOLOGICAL SITE is a conceptual grouping of soil map unit components within a Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) based on the similarities in response to management. Although there may be wide variability in the productivity of the soils grouped into a Provisional Site, the soil vegetation interactions as expressed in the State and Transition Model are similar and the management actions required to achieve objectives, whether maintaining the existing ecological state or managing for an alternative state, are similar. Provisional Sites are likely to be refined into more precise group during the process of meeting the APPROVED ECOLOGICAL SITE DESCRIPTION criteria.
Ecological site concept
The Subirrigated ecological site occupies a run-on landscape position and is associated with stream and river valleys. The slope is less than 3 percent, and there are no visible surface salts. The depth to the water table is 12 to 42 inches.
Associated sites
| R071XY028NE |
Loamy Lowland The Loamy Lowland ecological site is often upslope and adjacent to the Subirrigated ecological site. |
|---|---|
| R071XY036NE |
Loamy Upland The Loamy Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to but higher on the landscape than the Subirrigated ecological site. |
Similar sites
| R071XY052NE |
Saline Subirrigated The Saline Subirrigated ecological site is similar to the Subirrigated ecological site but is saline and has a stronger presence of alkali sacaton and inland saltgrass. |
|---|
Figure 2. Block diagram
Table 1. Dominant plant species
| Tree |
Not specified |
|---|---|
| Shrub |
Not specified |
| Herbaceous |
(1) Andropogon gerardii |
Physiographic features
The Subirrigated site occurs on nearly level to very gently sloping areas along floodplains in river valleys with moderately high water tables, and on lower levels of terraces in river valleys. It is subject to flooding unless it is positioned on stream terraces. This site receives runoff from areas higher on the landscape.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
| Landforms |
(1)
Flood plain
(2) Stream terrace |
|---|---|
| Runoff class | Negligible to medium |
| Flooding duration | Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to brief (2 to 7 days) |
| Flooding frequency | None to occasional |
| Ponding frequency | None |
| Elevation | 1,630 – 3,075 ft |
| Slope | 3% |
| Water table depth | 12 – 42 in |
| Aspect | Aspect is not a significant factor |
Climatic features
Annual precipitation ranges from 22 to 26 inches per year. Hourly winds are estimated to average about 14 miles per hour annually. Occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 60 miles per hour. Growth of native cool-season plants begins in early April and continues to about mid-June. Native warm-season plants begin growth in early June and continue to early August. Green up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October.
Table 3. Representative climatic features
| Frost-free period (characteristic range) | 120-131 days |
|---|---|
| Freeze-free period (characteristic range) | 135-154 days |
| Precipitation total (characteristic range) | 23-26 in |
| Frost-free period (actual range) | 115-140 days |
| Freeze-free period (actual range) | 134-165 days |
| Precipitation total (actual range) | 23-27 in |
| Frost-free period (average) | 127 days |
| Freeze-free period (average) | 147 days |
| Precipitation total (average) | 25 in |
Figure 3. Monthly precipitation range
Figure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range
Figure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range
Figure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 8. Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
-
(1) ANSELMO 2 SE [USC00250245], Anselmo, NE
-
(2) MASON CITY [USC00255250], Mason City, NE
-
(3) ARNOLD [USC00250355], Arnold, NE
-
(4) CENTRAL CITY [USC00251560], Central City, NE
-
(5) GOTHENBURG [USC00253365], Gothenburg, NE
-
(6) NORTH LOUP [USC00256040], North Loup, NE
-
(7) RAVENNA [USC00257040], Ravenna, NE
-
(8) BROKEN BOW 2 W [USC00251200], Broken Bow, NE
-
(9) BURWELL [USC00251345], Burwell, NE
-
(10) CANADAY STEAM PLT [USC00251450], Lexington, NE
-
(11) COMSTOCK [USC00251835], Comstock, NE
-
(12) OCONTO [USC00256167], Oconto, NE
-
(13) OVERTON 3 W [USC00256439], Overton, NE
-
(14) STAPLETON 5W [USC00258133], Stapleton, NE
-
(15) TAYLOR [USC00258455], Taylor, NE
-
(16) KEARNEY 4 NE [USC00254335], Kearney, NE
-
(17) LOUP CITY [USC00254985], Loup City, NE
-
(18) SAINT PAUL [USC00257515], Saint Paul, NE
-
(19) GRAND ISLAND AP [USW00014935], Grand Island, NE
Influencing water features
This ecological site has a combination of physical and hydrological features that: 1) normally has partial growing season groundwater within the root zone (2 feet to 3 feet), 2) allowing relatively free movement of water and air (aerobic conditions) throughout the upper half of the root zone, and 3) normally is not ponded or flooded during the growing season in most years.
Soil features
The soils in this site are predominantly somewhat poorly drained, but inclusions of moderately well drained soils occur within some of the listed series. These soils are generally very deep, but some are shallow over coarse sand. The surface soil is generally dark colored and ranges from 7 to 38 inches thick. Less common are light colored soils with a surface soil of less than 7 inches thick. Organic matter content of the surface layer is generally moderate. The underlying material is lighter colored than the surface soil, and commonly has redoximorphic concentrations (soft masses of iron oxide) in the upper part. It ranges widely in texture from clay loam to gravelly coarse sand. Some of the soils in this site are calcareous at or near the surface.
The major soil series correlated to this ecological site include: Alda, Boel, Bolent, Caruso, Cozad (wet phase), Fonner, Gibbon, Lamo, Leshara, Lex, Libory, Lockton, Merrick, Novina, Platte, Ord, Ovina, Wann. More information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for internet links to soil survey data that includes more details specific to your location.
Figure 9. Gibbon series profile
Table 4. Representative soil features
| Parent material |
(1)
Alluvium
|
|---|---|
| Surface texture |
(1) Silt loam (2) Loam (3) Fine sandy loam |
| Family particle size |
(1) Loamy |
| Drainage class | Somewhat poorly drained to moderately well drained |
| Permeability class | Moderately slow to rapid |
| Soil depth | 80 in |
| Surface fragment cover <=3" | Not specified |
| Surface fragment cover >3" | Not specified |
| Available water capacity (0-40in) |
1.9 – 9.4 in |
| Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in) |
40% |
| Electrical conductivity (0-40in) |
5 mmhos/cm |
| Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in) |
10 |
| Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in) |
5.6 – 9 |
| Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified) |
26% |
| Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified) |
Not specified |
Ecological dynamics
This site occurs on nearly level areas that are often adjacent to streams or rivers. The site is subirrigated by groundwater that ranges from 24 to 42 inches below the surface throughout the growing season. The availability of water has a major influence on the vegetation that will persist on this site. This site is subject to occasional flooding.
Even as post European settlement's alteration of the fire regime allows the expansion of the woody component of the native prairie, introduction of eastern redcedar as a windbreak species has compounded the issue. While eastern redcedar is native to Nebraska, the historic population in MLRA 71 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainages that were subsequently insulated from fire, or non-existent. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern redcedar as a primary component has provided a seed source for the aggressive woody plant. The ensuing encroachment into the native grasslands degrades the native wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock. However, since it is not a root sprouter, eastern redcedar is very susceptible to fire when under six feet tall. Management with prescribed fire is exceedingly effective if applied before this stage.
Continuous grazing without adequate recovery periods following each grazing or haying occurrence will cause species such as Kentucky bluegrass and other cool-season grasses to increase. The tall- and midgrass species, such as big bluestem, little bluestem, Indiangrass, and switchgrass decrease in frequency and production. Continued defoliation without adequate recovery periods causes the plant community to shift to cool-season grass species. There will be a drastic shift in forb composition as well. The general response of this site to long term continuous grazing or annual summer haying in July is to gradually lose the vigor and reproductive potential of the tall and mid-grass species and shift the plant community toward shortgrass species.
This site and adjacent level sites are preferred by livestock, which can lead to grazing distribution problems. Water locations, salt placement, and other aids help distribute grazing on this site. Other management techniques such as prescribed grazing help distribute grazing more evenly. Grazing and haying management that includes proper stocking with adequate rest periods or alternating the frequency and timing of annual haying will maintain the production potential of the site. Where more rapid improvement is desired, a rotational grazing or haying system is desirable. Concentrated grazing, combined with needed rest periods, can be beneficial in improving forage utilization.
The reference plant community has been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, seasonal use pastures, short-duration and time controlled grazing, and historical accounts.
The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted below, and includes a Reference State, a Native/Invaded Grass State, an Invaded Grass State, and an Invaded Woody State. Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to the alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The primary properties observed to determine this change are soil stability, vegetative communities, and the hydrologic cycle. Each state may have one or more plant communities that fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and climatic and local fluctuations in the precipitation regime. The processes that cause the movement between the states and communities are discussed in more detail in the state and community descriptions following the diagram.
State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available.
View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text
State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference State
The Reference State describes the range of plant community phases that occur on the Subirrigated site where the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes is mostly intact. The Reference Community is a representation of the native plant community phase that was historically maintained by frequent fire and herbivory with adequate recovery periods. The Degraded Native Grass Community and the Excessive Litter Community are the phases that result from management decisions that are unfavorable to a healthy Reference Community. High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality.
Dominant plant species
-
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
-
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
-
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
-
prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), grass
Community 1.1
Reference Community
The interpretive plant community for this site is the Reference Plant Community which serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact, or closely mimicked by management practices. The Reference Community developed under large herbivore grazing and occasional wildfire. Drought cycles have had historically minimal impact up on the vegetation of this site due to the presence of the water table. The species composition remains relatively stable depending upon the duration and severity of the drought cycle. The natural potential vegetation of this community is a mixed-grass prairie. This community is comprised of 85 to 90 percent grasses and grass-like plants, 5 to10 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, and switchgrass are the dominant species in this community. Secondary species include little bluestem, sideoats grama, and prairie cordgrass. A diverse forb population exists, including American licorice, Illinois bundleflower, Maximilian sunflower, and goldenrods. The dominant shrub species is leadplant. This plant community is highly productive and diverse. Grazing and haying management that includes proper stocking with adequate rest periods or alternating the frequency and timing of annual haying will maintain the production potential of the site. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will maintain the production, vigor, and health of the tallgrass species within the Reference Community. Total annual production ranges from 4,400 to 5,600 pounds per acre of air-dried vegetation per acre per year with a representative value of 5,100 pounds per acre.
Dominant plant species
-
leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
-
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
-
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
-
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
-
American licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota), other herbaceous
-
Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoensis), other herbaceous
-
Maximilian sunflower (Helianthus maximiliani), other herbaceous
Figure 10. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (lb/acre) |
Representative value (lb/acre) |
High (lb/acre) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grass/Grasslike | 4180 | 4590 | 4775 |
| Forb | 220 | 382 | 550 |
| Shrub/Vine | 0 | 128 | 275 |
| Total | 4400 | 5100 | 5600 |
Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7143, Central NE Loess Hills, lowland warm-season dominant. Warm-season grass dominant on lowlands.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 3 | 7 | 15 | 25 | 25 | 17 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
Community 1.2
Degraded Native Grass Community
The Degraded Native Grass Community developed under continuous season-long grazing, repeated annual haying, or summer grazing. Tallgrass species lose productive capacity through loss of vigor and reproductive potential. Indiangrass decreases to a remnant population. Overall forb production increases and there is a shift in species composition. Dominant forbs include Cuman ragweed, white sagebrush, swamp verbena, and Baldwin’s ironweed. Total annual production ranges from 3,500 to 4,500 pounds per acre of air-dried vegetation per acre per year with a representative value of 4,000 pounds per acre.
Dominant plant species
-
leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
-
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
-
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
-
prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), grass
-
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
-
Baldwin's ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii), other herbaceous
-
swamp verbena (Verbena hastata), other herbaceous
-
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7143, Central NE Loess Hills, lowland warm-season dominant. Warm-season grass dominant on lowlands.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 3 | 7 | 15 | 25 | 25 | 17 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Annual haying or summer grazing during the growth stage each year continuous season-long grazing without adequate recovery periods will shift the Reference Community to the Degraded Native Grass Community. Continued defoliation will significantly reduce the proportions of the tallgrass species. The easy accessibility of this site when included in upland pastures can lead to heavy grazing pressure due to livestock preference for these sites.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
Prescribed grazing over a long time period will move Degraded Native Grass Community back toward the Reference Plant Community. Rotational haying or haying in rotation with grazing will move this plant community back toward the Reference Community or associated successional plant communities assuming an adequate seed/vegetative source exists.
State 2
Native/Invaded Grass State
The Native/Invaded Grass State has been degraded from the Reference State. The site has been invaded by smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass. Loss of native warm-season species and functional groups along with increased bare soil degrades the forage productivity, soil moisture retention, organic matter, soil surface structure, and plant vigor. The Native/Invaded Grass State consists of one plant community, the Native/Invaded Cool-Season Grass Community.
Dominant plant species
-
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
-
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
-
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
Community 2.1
Native/Invaded Cool-Season Grass Community
With continuous grazing, cool-season species such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and western wheatgrass will become the dominant species replacing the warm-season, tall- and midgrass species. As these grasses are rhizomatous, this shift in species composition causes the plant community to move toward a sod-bound condition. Foxtail barley is a subdominant species. Warm-season tallgrasses such as prairie cordgrass, big bluestem, Indiangrass, and switchgrass are present as remnants or missing. Midsummer haying at the same time each year or continued heavy grazing without adequate recovery periods will accelerate this process. Total annual production, during an average year, ranges from 3,000 to 3,500 pounds per acre air-dry weight with a representative value of 3,250 pounds per acre.
Dominant plant species
-
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
-
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
-
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7139, Central NE Loess Hills, lowland cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant, lowlands.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 5 | 13 | 28 | 28 | 12 | 5 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
State 3
Invaded Grass State
This Invaded Grass State has been degraded from the Native/Invaded Grass State. Native, warm-season tallgrasses are absent or present only as remnants. The Invaded Grass State contains one plant community dominated by reed canarygrass and creeping meadow foxtail. Although both grasses are native species, the invasive varieties are likely cultivars crossbred for rapid growth. Forage quality degrades as the amount of these grasses increase as both are unpalatable throughout the majority of the year.
Dominant plant species
-
creeping meadow foxtail (Alopecurus arundinaceus), grass
-
reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), grass
Community 3.1
Reed Canarygrass/Creeping Meadow Foxtail Community
This plant community occurs when a viable reproductive source is available due to proximity, or when seeded with reed canarygrass or creeping foxtail. Reed canarygrass and creeping meadow foxtail seedings have often been established when cool-season grass production deteriorates. However, this seeding practice has compromised habitat for certain wildlife species, and once established becomes difficult to alter due to its' aggressive and invasive behavior. While this plant community has a high production potential, forage quality is marginal. Total annual production ranges significantly depending upon precipitation and the degree of encroachment.
Dominant plant species
-
reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), grass
-
creeping meadow foxtail (Alopecurus arundinaceus), grass
Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7139, Central NE Loess Hills, lowland cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant, lowlands.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 5 | 13 | 28 | 28 | 12 | 5 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
State 4
Invaded Woody State
The Invaded Woody State occurs when the site has been invaded by woody species, primarily eastern redcedar, Russian olive, rough-leaf dogwood, redosier dogwood, and American basswood. These woody species are present due to lack of prescribed fire and brush management measures. These sites typically have a loss of native warm-season grasses, degraded forage productivity and reduced soil quality.
Dominant plant species
-
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
-
Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), tree
-
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
-
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
-
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
-
American basswood (Tilia americana), tree
-
false indigo bush (Amorpha fruticosa), shrub
-
redosier dogwood (Cornus sericea), shrub
-
roughleaf dogwood (Cornus drummondii), shrub
Community 4.1
Deciduous Trees/Eastern Redcedar Community
Generally, this site is very conducive to cottonwood seedling establishment when flooding events exist or when other disturbances occur that mimic flooding events, such as tilling. Co-dominant species include silver maple, green ash, and occasionally American elm. The mid-story plant community consists of green ash, boxelder, and hackberry, with Kentucky coffeetree, and American basswood as lesser components. Invading exotic species include Siberian elm, Russian olive, white mulberry, and buckthorns. Native shrubs include rough-leaf dogwood, redosier dogwood, and gooseberry. In the wetter portion of the site, the plant component will transition into cottonwood, grey dogwood, redosier dogwood, shrub willows, and false indigo. Trees will eventually dominate the site, reducing grass production and limiting grazing potential. Kentucky bluegrass and sedges may persist in areas of open canopy. Eastern redcedar will invade the site in the absence of flooding. Trees will establish and grow until a high water table or prolonged periods of flooding occur. Eastern redcedar may be managed with prescribed burning or browsing animals while the trees are six feet tall or less.
Dominant plant species
-
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
-
Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), tree
-
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
-
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
-
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
-
false indigo bush (Amorpha fruticosa), shrub
-
redosier dogwood (Cornus sericea), shrub
-
roughleaf dogwood (Cornus drummondii), shrub
-
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7139, Central NE Loess Hills, lowland cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant, lowlands.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 5 | 13 | 28 | 28 | 12 | 5 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
Annual haying, summer grazing, or continuous season long grazing can cause the Reference State to transition to the Native/Invaded Grass State.
Transition T1B
State 1 to 4
No fire, encroachment of woody species, and flooding can cause the Reference State to transition to the Invaded Woody State. Flooding will establish habitat conditions for cottonwood generation. Eastern redcedar will establish but will die out when the water table rises or when periods of repeated or prolonged flooding occur.
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1
Prescribed grazing over a long time period, rotational haying, or rotational haying in a rotation with grazing will move the Native/Invaded Grass State back toward the Reference State assuming an adequate seed/vegetative source exists. This transition may take greater than 20 years to accomplish.
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3
Seeding or encroachment of reed canarygrass, as well as continuous season long grazing, can cause the Native/Invaded Grass State to transition to the Invaded Grass State.
Transition T2B
State 2 to 4
No fire, encroachment of woody species, and flooding can cause the Native/Invaded Grass State to transition to the Invaded Woody State.
Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2
Prescribed grazing, rotational haying, or haying in rotation with grazing over a long time period will move the Invaded Grass State back toward the Native/Invaded Grass State assuming an adequate seed/vegetative source exists. This transition may take longer than 20 years to accomplish.
Transition T3A
State 3 to 4
No fire and the resulting woody encroachment causes a transition from the Invaded Grass State to the Invaded Woody State.
Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1
Brush management, prescribed burning, or timber harvest combined with prescribed grazing can cause the Invaded Woody State to shift back to the Reference State.
Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2
Brush management, prescribed burning, or timber harvest combined with prescribed grazing can cause the Invaded Woody State to shift back to the Native/Invaded Grass State.
Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3
Brush management, prescribed burning, or timber harvest combined with prescribed grazing can cause the Invaded Woody State to shift back to the Invaded Grass State.
Additional community tables
Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Warm-Season Tallgrass | 1785–2550 | ||||
| big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | 1275–2040 | 25–40 | ||
| Indiangrass | SONU2 | Sorghastrum nutans | 510–1020 | 10–20 | ||
| switchgrass | PAVI2 | Panicum virgatum | 255–765 | 5–15 | ||
| prairie cordgrass | SPPE | Spartina pectinata | 255–510 | 5–10 | ||
| marsh muhly | MURA | Muhlenbergia racemosa | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| 2 | Warm-Season Midgrass | 765–1275 | ||||
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 765–1275 | 15–25 | ||
| sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 0–510 | 0–10 | ||
| purple lovegrass | ERSP | Eragrostis spectabilis | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| 3 | Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grass | 102–255 | ||||
| slender wheatgrass | ELTR7 | Elymus trachycaulus | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| plains bluegrass | POAR3 | Poa arida | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| prairie wedgescale | SPOB | Sphenopholis obtusata | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| 4 | Cool-Season Bunch Grass | 51–255 | ||||
| Canada wildrye | ELCA4 | Elymus canadensis | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| needle and thread | HECOC8 | Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| porcupinegrass | HESP11 | Hesperostipa spartea | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| foxtail barley | HOJU | Hordeum jubatum | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| 5 | Other Grasses | 0–255 | ||||
| Grass, perennial | 2GP | Grass, perennial | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| reed canarygrass | PHAR3 | Phalaris arundinacea | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| 6 | Grass-Like | 255–510 | ||||
| sedge | CAREX | Carex | 51–357 | 1–7 | ||
| Sartwell's sedge | CASA8 | Carex sartwellii | 51–255 | 1–5 | ||
| awlfruit sedge | CAST5 | Carex stipata | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| rush | JUNCU | Juncus | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| bulrush | SCHOE6 | Schoenoplectus | 0–255 | 0–5 | ||
| spikerush | ELEOC | Eleocharis | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 8 | Forbs | 255–510 | ||||
| Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 51–255 | 1–5 | ||
| white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 51–153 | 1–3 | ||
| American licorice | GLLE3 | Glycyrrhiza lepidota | 51–153 | 1–3 | ||
| Maximilian sunflower | HEMA2 | Helianthus maximiliani | 51–153 | 1–3 | ||
| stiff sunflower | HEPA19 | Helianthus pauciflorus | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| upright prairie coneflower | RACO3 | Ratibida columnifera | 0–102 | 0–2 | ||
| Canada goldenrod | SOCA6 | Solidago canadensis | 0–102 | 0–2 | ||
| white heath aster | SYER | Symphyotrichum ericoides | 51–102 | 1–2 | ||
| tall blazing star | LIAS | Liatris aspera | 51–102 | 1–2 | ||
| stiff goldenrod | OLRI | Oligoneuron rigidum | 51–102 | 1–2 | ||
| Pennsylvania smartweed | POPE2 | Polygonum pensylvanicum | 0–102 | 0–2 | ||
| showy milkweed | ASSP | Asclepias speciosa | 51–102 | 1–2 | ||
| false boneset | BREU | Brickellia eupatorioides | 0–102 | 0–2 | ||
| white prairie clover | DACA7 | Dalea candida | 0–102 | 0–2 | ||
| purple prairie clover | DAPU5 | Dalea purpurea | 51–102 | 1–2 | ||
| Illinois bundleflower | DEIL | Desmanthus illinoensis | 0–102 | 0–2 | ||
| western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 51–102 | 1–2 | ||
| autumn onion | ALST | Allium stellatum | 0–102 | 0–2 | ||
| Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 51–102 | 1–2 | ||
| smooth horsetail | EQLA | Equisetum laevigatum | 0–51 | 0–1 | ||
| swamp verbena | VEHA2 | Verbena hastata | 0–51 | 0–1 | ||
| prairie groundsel | PAPL12 | Packera plattensis | 0–51 | 0–1 | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 9 | Shrubs | 0–255 | ||||
| Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| leadplant | AMCA6 | Amorpha canescens | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| willow | SALIX | Salix | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| western snowberry | SYOC | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | 0–153 | 0–3 | ||
| western poison ivy | TORY | Toxicodendron rydbergii | 0–51 | 0–1 | ||
Interpretations
Animal community
LIVESTOCK - GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements. Added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.
The following table lists suggested initial stocking rates for cattle under average growing conditions. These are estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community/vegetative state (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when herbivores other than cattle are involved. Under more intensive management systems, improved harvest efficiencies can result in an increased carrying capacity.
Plant Community, Total Production (RV), and Carrying Capacity*
Community 1.1, Reference Community: 5100 lbs./acre and 1.39 AUM/acre
Community 1.2, Degraded Native Grass Community: 4000 lbs./acre and 1.09 AUM/acre
Community 2.1, Rhizomatous Cool-Season Grass Community: 3250 lbs./acre and 0.89 AUM/ac
* Continuous growing season-long grazing by cattle under average growing conditions (utilizing 50% of usable production or 25% harvest efficiency). AUM = The amount of forage required by one animal unit (one mature cow weighing 1000 lbs. and her calf as old as 3 months, or their equivalent) for one month or 912 pounds of air dry forage.
WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 71 lies primarily within the Mixed-grass prairie ecosystem. Though European settlers have converted about half of this landscape to farmland, a significant portion of the prairie is still intact. This area still consists of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional wetlands and limited woody riparian corridors. These habitats historically provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects still provide a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrive in this landscape.
The Mixed-grass prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement, elimination of fire, overgrazing, and some habitat fragmentation significantly altered the appearance and functionality of the entire ecosystem. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free-roaming bison herds have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats that they provide. Fragmentation has reduced habitat quality for numerous area-sensitive species, as highlighted by the decline of the greater prairie chicken.
Historically, an ecological mosaic of the sites provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands. Most of these important habitat features and components are intact, providing upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds; nesting and escape cover for waterfowl; forbs and insects for brood-rearing habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores.
Disruption of the natural fire regime and lack of appropriate grazing management are the greatest threats to the ecosystem dynamics today. Tree and shrub encroachment from lack of fire creates habitat that favors generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove, and provides perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality on native bird populations. Introduced species such as smooth bromegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), and Canada thistle further degrade the biological integrity of many areas of the prairie.
Hydrological functions
Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group A and B. Infiltration is moderate and runoff potential for this site varies from moderately poor to poor depending on ground cover. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to NRCS Section 4, National Engineering Handbook (NEH-4) for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).
Recreational uses
This site provides excellent hunting areas and as it attracts many different species of birds, is popular for bird watching as well. The wide varieties of plants, which bloom from spring until fall, have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wood products
No appreciable wood products are present on the site.
Other products
None noted.
Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range trained personnel was also used. Those involved in developing this site include Dana Larsen, State Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS; Chuck Markley, Resource Soil Scientist, NRCS; and Neil Dominy, Resource Soil Scientist, NRCS.
Field Offices:
Albion, Broken Bow, Burwell, Central City, Fullerton, Grand Island, Greeley, Kearney, Lexington, Loup City, North Platte, Ord, St. Paul, Thedford
Other references
High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. (http://hpcc.unl.edu, accessed 12/05/16)
Johnsgaard, P.A. 2001. “The Nature of Nebraska.” University of Nebraska Press.
LaGrange, T.G. 2015. Final Report submitted to EPA for the project entitled: Nebraska’s Wetland Condition Assessment: An Intensification Study in Support of the 2011 National Survey (CD# 97714601), and the related project entitled: Nebraska's Supplemental Clean Water Act §106 Funds, as Related to Participation in National Wetland Condition Assessment (I – 97726201). Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Lincoln.
Muhs, Daniel R., E. Bettis III, J. Aleinikoff, J. McGeehin, J. Beann, G. Skipp, B. Marshall, H. Roberts, W. Johnson, and R. Benton.
"Origin and paleoclimatic significance of late Quaternary loess in Nebraska: Evidence from stratigraphy, chronology, sedimentology, and geochemistry" (2008). USGS Staff -- Published Research. Paper 162. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usgsstaffpub/162 Accessed 12/05/16.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. NRCS National Ecological Site Handbook. January, 2014.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Section 4. August, 2011.
Personal communications with professional ecologists and wildlife experts.
Rolfsmeier, S.B. and G. Steinauer. 2010. "Terrestrial Ecological Systems and Natural Communities of Nebraska", (version IV)
Nebraska Natural Heritage Program.
USDA, NRCS. National Water and Climate Center, Portland, OR. http://wcc.nrcs.usda.gov Accessed 12/05/16.
USDA, NRCS.1997. National Range and Pasture Handbook.
USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, Fort Collins, CO. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov Accessed 12/05/16.
USDA, NRCS. 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5 http://plants.usda.gov Accessed 12/05/16. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA.
USDA, NRCS, various published soil surveys.
Contributors
Dana Larsen
Nadine Bishop
Doug Whisenhunt
Approval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 1/08/2025
Acknowledgments
Many thanks to the soils, local practitioner, and state technical teams for your input and expertise, as well as to the editor.
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
| Author(s)/participant(s) | Jeff Nichols, Nadine Bishop |
|---|---|
| Contact for lead author | jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov |
| Date | 11/30/2024 |
| Approved by | Suzanne Mayne-Kinney |
| Approval date | |
| Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
-
Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
None. Water flow patterns are not expected on this site. -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None. Pedestals and terracettes are not expected to occur on this site. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is 5 percent or less. Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), litter, standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae). -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. Wind scoured and depositional areas are not expected on this site. -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
None. Litter movement is not expected to occur on this site. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability ratings will be 5 to 6, typically 6. Interspaces are quite small and there should be no difference between interspaces and under canopy. High root content and organic matter will be present in the soil surface. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
The A-horizon averages 7 inches (17.8 cm) thick, grayish brown (10YR 5/1) to very dark grayish brown (10YR 2/1) moist; weak medium, very fine granular to subangular blocky structure. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Plant community composition of 85 to 90 percent perennial grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 0 to 2 percent shrubs will optimize infiltration on the site. The grass and grass-like component is made up of native, perennial, warm-season, tall, rhizomatous grasses (40-50%), native, perennial, warm-season, mid-grasses (15-30%), native, perennial, cool-season, rhizomatous grasses (2-5%), native, perennial, cool-season, bunch grasses (1-5%), and grass-likes (5-10%).. -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. No compaction layers occur naturally on this site. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial warm-season, tallgrass, 1785-2550#/ac, 35-50% (4 species minimum): big bluestem, Indiangrass, prairie cordgrass, switchgrass, marsh muhly.
Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, midgrass (2 species minimum): little bluestem, purple lovegrass, sideoats grama.Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, warm-season midgrass, 765-1275 #/ac, 15-25% (1 species minimum): little bluestem, purple lovegrass, sideoats grama.
Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial warm-season, tallgrass (3 species minimum): big bluestem, Indiangrass, prairie cordgrass, switchgrass, marsh muhly.
2. Native, perennial, cool-season, rhizomatous grass (1 species minimum): western wheatgrass.
3. Native forbs (4 species minimum): Cuman ragweed, Baldwin's ironweed, swamp verbena, white sagebrush and other forbs which vary from location to location.Other:
Minor - Phase 1.1
1. Grass-like, 255-510 #/ac, 5-10%: sedges.
2. Native forb (annual and perennial), 255-510 #/ac, 5-10%: forbs present vary from location to location.
3. Native, perennial, cool-season, rhizomatous grass, 102-255 #/ac, 2-5%: western wheatgrass.
4. Native, perennial, cool-season, bunch grass, 51-255 #/ac, 1-5%: Canada wildrye, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, foxtail barley, slender wheatgrass, plains bluegrass.
5. Shrub, 0-255 #/ac, 0-5%: leadplant, rose, willow, western snowberry, western poison ivy.
Minor - Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, cool-season, bunchgrass: Canada wildrye, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, foxtail barley, slender wheatgrass, plains bluegrass, prairie wedgescale.
2. Grass-likes: sedges.
3. Shrubs: leadplant, rose, willow, western snowberry, western poison ivy.Additional:
The Reference Community (1.1) consists of seven F/S Groups. These groups in order of expected abundance are native, perennial, warm-season, tallgrass; native, perennial, warm-season, midgrass; grass-likes; forbs (perennial and annual); native, perennial, cool-season, rhizomatous grass; native perennial, cool-season, bunch grass; and shrubs.
The Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) also consists of seven F/S Groups. These groups in order of expected abundance are native, perennial, warm-season, midgrass; native, perennial, warm-season tallgrass; native, perennial, cool-season rhizomatous grass; native forbs (perennial and annual), native, perennial, cool-season bunch grass; grass-likes; and shrubs. -
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
A few (less than 3 percent) dead centers may occur in bunchgrasses. Shrubs may show some dead branches (less than 5 percent) as plants age. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter cover is evenly distributed throughout the site and is expected to be 90 to 95 percent and at a depth of 0.75 inches (1.9 cm). Kentucky bluegrass excessive litter or tree encroachment can negatively impact the functionality of this site. -
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Production is shown in air-dry values. The Representative Value (RV) = 5,100 pounds per acre. Low production years = 4,400 pounds per acre. High production years = 5,600 pounds per acre. -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
No non-native invasive species are present. Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, Caucasian bluestem, eastern redcedar, honey locust, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), Canada thistle, common mullein, and sericea lespedeza are known invasives that have the potential to be dominant or co-dominant on the site. Consult the state noxious weed and state watch lists for potential invasive species on each ecological site. NOTE: Invasive plants (for the purposes of the IIRH protocol) are plant species that are typically not found on the ecological site or should only be in trace or minor categories under the natural disturbance regime and have the potential to become a dominant or codominant species on the site if their establishment and growth are not actively controlled by natural disturbances or management interventions. Species listed characterize degraded states AND have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species. -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to climatic conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.
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