Subirrigated
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
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Management practices/drivers
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- Transition 1 to 2 More details
- Transition 1 to 3 More details
- Transition 1 to 4 More details
- Restoration pathway 2 to 1 More details
- Transition 2 to 3 More details
- Restoration pathway 3 to 1 More details
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No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
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Description
The Grassland State is supported by empirical data, historical data, local expertise, and photographs. This state is defined by two native plant communities that are a result of periodic fire, drought, and grazing. These events are part of the natural disturbance regime and climatic process. The Reference Plant Community consists of warm-season tall- and midgrasses, forbs, and shrubs. The At-risk Community consists of cool- and warm-season midgrasses, forbs, shrubs, annuals, and/or woody species.
Submodel
Description
The Cool-Season State is supported by empirical data, historical data, local expertise, and photographs. The reference Grassland State ecosystem has been driven beyond the limits of ecological resilience and has crossed a threshold into the Cool-Season State. The designation of the Cool-Season State denotes changes in individual plant species and community composition. This change in plant species affects the biotic integrity of the ecosystem. The photosynthetic pathway of plants gradually transitioned from a warm- to a cool-season plant community. The replacement of plants will have an impact on grazing management, influencing the timing and season of use. Hydrologic function of the ecosystem may also altered by the growing season of the cool-season plants.
This alternative state should be treated as a hypothesis that will be tested through long-term observation of ecosystem behavior and repeated application of conservation and restoration practices. This state should be re-evaluated and refined continually.
Submodel
Description
This state is dominated by a tree and/or shrub plant community. The increase and spread of trees results from an absence of fire. Woody plants can increase up to 34% from a lack of fire according to a study from 1937 to 1969, in contrast to a 1% increase on burned areas (Bragg and Hulbert, 1976). Periodic burning tends to hinder the establishment of most woody species, and favors forbs and grasses. However, it should be pointed out that not all unburned areas have a woody plant invasion.
Hydrologic function is affected by the amount of vegetative cover. Canopy interception loss can vary from 25.4% to 36.7% (Thurow and Hester, 1997). A small rainfall event is usually retained in the foliage and does not reach the litter layer at the base of the tree. Only when canopy storage is reached and exceeded does precipitation fall to the soil surface. Interception losses associated with the accumulation of leaves, twigs, and branches at the bases of trees are considerably higher than losses associated with the canopy. The decomposed material retains approximately 40% of the water that is not retained in the canopy (Thurow and Hester, 1997). Soil dynamic property changes affected include biological activity, infiltration rates, and soil fertility.
Special planning will be necessary to assure that sufficient amounts of fine fuel are available to carry fires with enough intensity to control woody species. In some locations the use of chemicals as a brush management tool may be desirable to initiate and accelerate this transition.
Birds, small mammals, and livestock are instrumental in the distribution of seed and accelerating the spread of most tree and shrubs common to this site. The speed of encroachment varies considerably and can occur on both grazed and non-grazed pastures.
Many species of wildlife, especially bobwhite quail, turkey, and white-tailed deer benefit from the growth of trees and shrubs for both food and cover. Conversely, the presence of trees is considered detrimental to populations of greater prairie chickens. When management for specific wildlife populations is desirable, these options should be considered in any brush management plan.
Submodel
Description
The Tillage State consist of abandoned cropland that has been naturally revegetated (go-back) or planted/seeded to grassland. Many reseeded plant communities were planted with a local seeding mix under the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) or were planted to a monoculture of sideoats grama. Go-back communities are difficult to define due to the variability of plant communities that can exist. Many of these communities are represented by the genus Aristida (threeawns).
This is an alternative state since the energy, hydrologic, and nutrient cycles are functioning altered to that of the Reference State in its natural disturbance regime. Bulk density, aggregate stability, soil structure, and plant functional and structural groups are not fully restored to that of the Reference State. Mechanical tillage can destroy soil aggregation. Soil aggregates are an example of dynamic soil property change. Aggregate stability is critical for infiltration, root growth, and resistance to water and wind erosion (Brady and Weil, 2008).
Submodel
Mechanism
Long-term heavy grazing, inadequate rest and recovery of reference plant species, and an absence of prescription fire all contribute to the variables or events that contribute directly to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states. This transition involves a change in vegetation photosynthetic pathways, resulting in a shift from warm-season-dominated grasses to cool-season grasses.
Mechanism
Changes from a Grassland State to a Woody State lead to changes in hydrologic function, forage production, dominant functional and structural groups, and wildlife habitat. Understory plants may be negatively affected by trees and shrubs by a reduction in light, soil moisture, and soil nutrients. Increases in tree and shrub density and size have the effects of reducing understory plant cover and productivity, with desirable forage grasses often being most severely reduced (Eddleman, 1983). As vegetation cover changes from grasses to trees, a greater proportion of precipitation is lost throughout interception and evaporation; therefore, less precipitation is available for producing herbaceous forage or for deep drainage or runoff (Thurow and Hester, 1997).
Tree and shrub establishment becomes increasingly greater while fine fuel loads decrease. As trees and shrubs increase at levels of greater than 20 percent canopy cover, the processes and functions that allow the Woody State to become resilient are active and dominate over the processes and systems inherent of the Grassland State. Using prescription fire as a standalone management tool is unsuccessful to eradicate the trees and shrubs due to a lack of fine fuel loads.
Mechanism
This transition is triggered by a management action as opposed to a natural event. Tillage, or breaking the ground with machinery for crop production, will move the Grassland State to a Tillage State. The resilience of the Reference State has been compromised by the fracturing and blending of the native virgin sod. The energy, hydrologic, and nutrient cycles are altered and vary from that of the Grassland State.
Mechanism
Long term grazing management with adequate rest and recovery of the remnant Reference Plant Community species and a prescription fire are the management actions required to recover to the Grassland State. The species to target for management are those that were dominant within the Reference Plant Community, according to the functional/structural group sheet. This restoration may take greater than 20 years to accomplish.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Prescribed Burning |
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Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
The absence of managing woody species are the variables that contribute directly to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states. This transition involves a change in vegetation type and a canopy cover of greater than 15% . This transition could take generations, and possibly will not occur if there is not a tree-shrub seed source available.
Mechanism
Restoration efforts will be costly, labor-intensive and can take many years, if not decades, to return to a Grassland State. Once canopy levels reach greater than 20 percent, estimated cost to remove trees is very expensive and includes high energy inputs.
The technologies needed in order to go from an invaded Woody State to a Grassland State include but are not limited to: prescribed burning—the use of fire as a tool to achieve a management objective on a predetermined area under conditions where the intensity and extent of the fire are controlled; brush management—manipulating woody plant cover to obtain desired quantities and types of woody cover and/or to reduce competition with herbaceous understory vegetation, in accordance with overall resource management objectives; prescribed grazing—the controlled harvest of vegetation with grazing or browsing animals managed with the intent to achieve a specified objective. Grazing at an intensity that will maintain enough cover to protect the soil and maintain or improve the quantity and quality of desirable vegetation.
When a juniper tree is cut and removed, the soil structure, and the associated high infiltration rate may be maintained for over a decade (Hester, 1996). This explains why the area near the dripline usually has substantially greater forage production for many years after the tree has been cut. It also explains why runoff will not necessarily dramatically increase once juniper is removed. Rather, the water continues to infiltrate at high rates into soils previously ameliorated by junipers, thereby increasing deep drainage potential. In rangeland, deep drainage amounts can be 16 percent of the total rainfall amount per year (Thurow and Hester, 1997).
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
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Prescribed Burning |
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|
Prescribed Grazing |
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