State 1
Grassland State

The Grassland State defines the ecological potential and natural range of variability resulting from the natural disturbance regime of the Clay Hills ecological site. This state is supported by empirical data, historical data, local expertise, and photographs. It is defined by a suite of native plant communities that are a result of periodic fire, drought, and grazing. These events are part of the natural disturbance regime and climatic process. The Reference Plant Community consists of warm-season tall- and midgrasses, cool-season, and sod-forming grasses, forbs, and shrubs. The Midgrass/Tallgrass Plant Community is made up primarily of warm-season midgrasses, with an interspersed cool-season component and decreasing amounts of forbs and tallgrasses. The Midgrass-Shortgrass Plant Community is dominated by midgrasses, shortgrasses, and cool-season midgrasses.

Characteristics and indicators. Tallgrasses and Midgrasses are dominant in the Grassland State.

Resilience management. Management strategies that will sustain this State include monitoring key forage species and providing a forage and animal balance.

Community 1.1
Reference Plant Community

Figure 11. MLRA 74 Reference Plant Community.

The interpretive plant community for this site is the Reference Plant Community, and represents the original community that existed prior to European settlement. The site is characterized as a grassland essentially free of trees and large shrubs. It is dominated by tall, warm-season grasses including big bluestem, switchgrass, and Indiangrass. The major midgrass is little bluestem. Combined, these grasses will account for 65 to 75 percent of vegetation produced annually. Other prevalent midgrasses are sideoats grama, western wheatgrass, Canada wildrye, and composite dropseed. Scattered throughout are minor amounts of shortgrasses consisting of blue grama and buffalograss. The Reference Plant Community supports a wide variety of legume species, which are interspersed throughout the grass sward. The most abundant are groundplum milkvetch, violet prairie clover, slimflower scurfpea, and prairie bundleflower. Slimflower scurfpea may dominate the aspect of this site in late spring and early summer before it matures and breaks off at ground level to be rolled away by the wind. Other important forbs include Maximilian sunflower, dotted blazing star, upright prairie coneflower, Missouri goldenrod, and pitcher sage. Leadplant and Jersey tea are low-growing shrubs that occur over the site. Unlike most shrubs, these plants are both quite tolerant to fire. Occasional clumps of smooth and fragrant sumac may be found on exposures with steeper-sloped exposures where they partially escape the effects of intense fires. Growth of warm-season grasses on this site typically begins during the period of May 1 to May 15 and continues until mid September. As a general rule, 75 percent of total production is completed by mid-July. This varies only slightly from year to year depending upon temperature and precipitation patterns. There are exceptions as big bluestem will occasionally initiate spring growth in early April following mild winter temperatures. Also, it is not unusual for other warm-season grasses such as Indiangrass and little bluestem to have some new leaf growth arising from basal buds in late October following moderate fall temperatures. Cool-season grasses, sedges and rushes generally have two primary growth periods, one in the spring (March through early June) and again in the fall (September and October). Some growth may occur in winter months during periods of unseasonably mild temperatures.

Resilience management. This is a stable plant community when grazing and fire are adequately managed. A prescribed grazing program that incorporates periods of deferment during the growing season benefits the tallgrasses and even the more palatable forb species. Excessive grazing and livestock trailing can quickly impact soil stability and lead to sheet and gully erosion. Because this site often occurs on ridgetops and other high elevations on the landscape, it is preferred by grazing animals during the hot days of late summer to gain relief from heat and insects. Concentrated livestock use, such as winter feeding areas, can cause compaction of the wet, clay soils and stress the dominant tallgrasses.

Community 1.2
Midgrass-Tallgrass Plant Community

Figure 13. Midgrass/Tallgrass Plant Community in MLRA 74.

This plant community developed as a result of many years of repeated, heavy grazing. Midgrasses dominate the site and comprise 40 to 50 percent of the annual production. Most abundant midgrasses include little bluestem, sideoats grama, western wheatgrass, composite dropseed, and purple lovegrass. Although tallgrasses have been reduced to a secondary component, they still contribute 20 to 35 percent of the total herbage production and maintain a visible presence in the community aspect. Shortgrasses such as blue grama, bufflograss, tumble windmillgrass, fall witchgrass, and prairie threeawn produce 10 to 15 percent of the vegetation. Forb production is quite variable and may range from 5 to 25 percent of the total vegetation depending upon frequency of fire and amounts and timing of rainfall events. Perennial forbs include white sagebrush, slimflower scrurfpea, Missouri goldenrod, Baldwin ironweed, white heath aster, and Cuman ragweed. In some locations shrubs and trees such as smooth sumac, fragrant sumac, coralberry, and eastern red cedar comprise up to 10 percent of the vegetation.

Resilience management. Although little bluestem is the predominant species, big bluestem, Indiangrass, and switchgrass plants with reduced vigor and stature are commonly found throughout the site. This plant community is relatively stable under long-term grazing unless negatively impacted by additional stresses like extended drought and extreme grazing pressure. While switchgrass may initially increase with heavy grazing on this site, it will eventually decrease along with big bluestem and Indiangrass. Unprotected plants are usually grazed repeatedly and remain in a low state of vigor. Of these remnants, big bluestem is generally the most abundant, having rhizomes that can persist for many years in a weakened condition. In this stage, new growth will emerge as three to five prostrate leaves, which provide partial relief from grazing. These tallgrass remnants respond favorably to periods of rest from grazing and may regain enough vigor to produce viable seed heads with two to three years of careful grazing management. Prescribed grazing with adequate rest and recovery periods during the growing season will shift this plant community to include more productive tallgrasses. With continued management the taller grasses will gradually increase in vigor and abundance to dominate the landscape.

Community 1.3
Midgrass-Shortgrass Plant Community

This plant community developed as a result of long-term, heavy, continuous overgrazing. Midgrasses dominate the site and comprise 40 to 55 percent of the annual production. Most abundant midgrasses include little bluestem, sideoats grama, western wheatgrass, and composite dropseed. Shortgrasses such as blue grama, hairy grama, buffalograss, tumble windmillgrass, fall witchgrass, and purple threeawn produce 20 to 30 percent of the vegetation. Forb production is quite variable and may range from 10 to 30 percent of the total vegetation depending upon amounts and timing of rainfall events. Perennial forbs include white sagebrush, slimflower scurfpea, Missouri goldenrod, Baldwin ironweed, white heath aster, and Cuman ragweed. In some locations shrubs and trees such as fragrant sumac, eastern red cedar, and coralberry comprise up to 15 percent of the vegetation.

Resilience management. Remnant plants of big bluestem, Indiangrass, and switchgrass are only found in protected locations. These plants are usually grazed repeatedly and remain in a low state of health and vigor. Of these remnants, big bluestem is generally the most abundant. It has rhizomes that can persist for many years in a weakened condition. When in this state of vigor, new growth consisting of three to five leaves will emerge in a prostrate position rather than upright. This allows the plants to partially escape grazing. These remnant plants respond favorably to periods of rest from grazing and may regain vigor in two to three years. However, their numbers or percentage of composition is greatly reduced and it may take many years to regain a large role in the plant community. Prescribed grazing with adequate rest and recovery periods during the growing season will shift this plant community to include more productive tallgrasses. With continued management the taller grasses will gradually increase in vigor and abundance to dominate the landscape.

Pathway 1.1 to 1.2
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Reference Plant Community

Midgrass-Tallgrass Plant Community

These mechanisms include management controlled by repetitive heavy use, no rest or recovery of the key forage species, and no forage and animal balance for many extended grazing seasons. This type of management lasting for periods greater than 10 years will shift functional and structural plant group dominance toward a Midgrass Plant Community.

Context dependence. Plant community composition shifts from tallgrass- to midgrass-dominant.

Pathway 1.2 to 1.1
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Midgrass-Tallgrass Plant Community

Reference Plant Community

Causes of plant community shift include management (10-15 years) with adequate rest and recovery of the key forage species (big bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, and little bluestem) within the Reference Plant Community . If woody species are present, prescription fires every 6-8 years will be necessary for their removal and maintenance.

Pathway 1.2 to 1.3
Community 1.2 to 1.3

These mechanisms include management controlled by repetitive heavy use, no rest or recovery of the key forage species and no forage and animal balance for many extended grazing seasons. This type of management lasting for periods greater than 20 years will shift functional and structural plant group dominance toward a Midgrass-Shortgrass Plant Community.

Pathway 1.3 to 1.2
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Causes of plant community shift include management (10-15 years) with adequate rest and recovery of the key forage species (little bluestem, sideoats grama, big bluestem, switchgrass, and Indiangrass) within the Midgrass/Tallgrass Plant Community . If woody species are present, prescription fires every 6-8 years will be necessary for their removal and maintenance.

State 2
Shortgrass State

With heavy, continuous grazing, blue grama and buffalograss will become the dominant species and have a sod-bound appearance. Unable to withstand the grazing pressure, only a remnant population of western wheatgrass remains.

Characteristics and indicators. The Shortgrass State is characterized with specific dynamic soil property changes. Changes between the Grassland State and the Shortgrass State have been documented. As plant community cover decreases from bunchgrasses to more of the sod grasses there is a decrease in infiltration and interception and an increase in surface runoff (Thurow T., 2003).

Resilience management. This is a resistant and resilient state. Grazing management practice should include a forage and animal balance.

Community 2.1
Shortgrass Plant Community

Figure 14. MLRA 74 Shortgrass Plant Community.

This plant community presents a distinctive shortgrass aspect on the landscape. It is dominated by blue grama and buffalograss with notable amounts of western wheatgrass and sideoats grama present in a state of low vigor and productivity. Other grasses include Japanese brome, cheatgrass, composite dropseed, silver beardgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, prairie threeawn, fall witchgrass, and tumble windmillgrass. These species commonly account for 70 to 80 percent of the annual forage production. Like the desirable grasses, palatable legumes and other forbs have been reduced by continuous heavy grazing and competition over many years. Prevalent broadleaf species in this situation include annual ragweed, white sagebrush, Cuman ragweed, Baldwin ironweed, wavyleaf thistle, and curlycup gumweed. Forbs may comprise 20 to 30 percent of the total vegetation.

Resilience management. Recovery of the tallgrasses, midgrasses, and associated forb characteristics of the Reference Plant Community will require many years of careful management that includes prescribed grazing and extended periods of rest during the growing season. If remnant stands of the desired species are not present or located nearby as seed sources for reestablishment, interseeding measures may be necessary to create pioneer colonies for seed dispersal throughout the community. Prescribed burning can be a useful tool if used strategically to benefit the desired species, especially in the later stages of the recovery process.

State 3
Woody State

This state is dominated by a shrub and/or tree plant community. The increase and spread of shrubs and trees results from an absence of fire. Woody plants can increase up to 34 percent from a lack of fire according to a study from 1937 to 1969, in contrast to a 1 percent increase on burned areas (Bragg and Hulbert, 1976). Periodic burning will hinder the establishment of most woody species and favor forbs and grasses. However, it should be pointed out that not all unburned areas have a woody plant invasion. Birds, small mammals, and livestock are instrumental in the distribution of seed and accelerating the spread of most trees and shrubs common to this site. The speed of encroachment varies considerably and can occur on both grazed and non-grazed pastures. Many species of wildlife, especially bobwhite quail, turkey, and white-tailed deer benefit from the growth of trees and shrubs for both food and cover. When management for specific wildlife populations is desirable, these options should be considered in any brush management plan.

Characteristics and indicators. Hydrologic function is affected by the amount of vegetative cover. Canopy interception loss can vary from 25.4 percent to 36.7 percent (Thurow and Hester, 1997). A small rainfall event is usually retained in the foliage and does not reach the litter layer at the base of the tree. Only when canopy storage is reached and exceeded does precipitation fall to the soil surface. Interception losses associated with the accumulation of leaves, twigs, and branches at the bases of trees are considerably higher than losses associated with the canopy. The decomposed material retains approximately 40 percent of the water that is not retained in the canopy (Thurow and Hester, 1997). Soil properties affected include biological activity, infiltration rates, and soil fertility.

Resilience management. Special planning will be necessary to assure that sufficient amounts of fine fuel are available to carry fires with enough intensity to control woody species. In some locations the use of chemicals as a brush management tool may be desirable to initiate and accelerate this transition.

Community 3.1
Shrub and/or Tree Community

This plant community is dominated by shrubs consisting primarily of coralberry, fragrant sumac, and smooth sumac. Trees including osage orange, honeylocust, and eastern redcedar are common invaders that become established in some areas. Coralberry is generally the most abundant shrub and often forms low, dense thickets throughout the site. Shrubs and trees may produce 40 to 60 percent of the total vegetation. The spread of shrubs and trees results from the absence of fire. Periodic burning tends to hinder the establishment of most of these woody species and favor grass and forb species. However, not all unburned areas have a woody plant problem. The speed of woody encroachment varies considerably, depending on seed availability in surrounding areas. Numerous birds are instrumental in the distribution of seed and accelerating the spread of shrub and tree species over the site. Woody encroachment may also occur on areas subjected to longtime continuous overgrazing. In these situations the associated grasses will usually consist of composite dropseed, purple lovegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, and Scribner’s rosette grass. Shrubs and trees will also invade areas where both grazing and fire have been excluded for many years. Heavy accumulation of plant mulch and litter retards herbage growth and provides a favorable habitat for seed germination and establishment of many woody species. The associated grasses in this situation are usually big bluestem, little bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, sedges, and Canada wildrye. Grass production is significantly reduced by competition from forbs and woody species. Grass yields vary from 40 to 50 percent of the total vegetative production. Forbs often produce 5 to 20 percent of the total. Major forbs include white sagebrush, Cuman ragweed, Baldwin ironweed, and common yarrow. In this plant community, the amount of available forage is heavily dependent upon the predominant woody species and the kind(s) of livestock and/or wildlife utilizing the site. Usually a prescribed burning program accompanied with prescribed grazing will gradually return the plant community to one dominated by grasses and forbs. Longer periods will be needed where the tall and midgrasses have been greatly reduced or eliminated. Special planning will be necessary to assure that sufficient amounts of fine fuel are available for carrying the intensive fires necessary to control woody species. Use of labeled herbicides as a brush management tool will usually be necessary to reduce populations of fire resistant species like osage orange and honeylocust and accelerate the recovery of desired vegetative cover. Many species of wildlife, especially bobwhite quail and whitetail deer, benefit from the growth of shrubs for both food and as cover. When wildlife populations are a desirable component, this should be considered in any brush management plans.

Resilience management. The shrub and tree plant community is sustained by the absence of fire and brush control.

State 4
Tillage State

Extensive areas of the historic Clay Hills plant communities were plowed and converted to production of cultivated crops by the early European settlers and subsequent generations. In addition to destroying the original plant community, repeated tillage commonly resulted in major changes in soil conditions. Reductions in organic matter, mineral levels, soil structure, oxygen levels, and water holding capacity, along with increased runoff/erosion and shifts in the populations of soil-dwelling organisms, were common on these sites. The extent of these changes depended upon duration of cropping as well as crops grown and other management practices. The Tillage State consists of abandoned cropland that has been naturally revegetated (go-back) or planted/seeded to grassland. Many reseeded plant communities were planted with a local seeding mix under the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) or were planted to a monoculture of sideoats grama. Go-back communities are difficult to define due to the variability of plant communities that can exist. Many of these communities are represented by the genus Aristida (threeawns).

Characteristics and indicators. This is an alternative state since the energy, hydrologic, and nutrient cycles are altered to that of the Reference State in its natural disturbance regime. Bulk density, aggregate stability, soil structure, and plant functional and structural groups are not fully restored to that of the Reference State. Mechanical tillage can destroy soil aggregation. Soil aggregates are an example of dynamic soil property change. Aggregate stability is critical for infiltration, root growth, and resistance to water and wind erosion (Brady and Weil, 2008).

Resilience management. This state is a result of a land use management decision.

Community 4.1
Reseed Plant Community

This plant community occurs on areas that were formerly farmed and reseeded with a mixture of native species common in the Reference Plant Community. Most seeding mixtures consisted of a blend of grasses that include sand bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, little bluestem, sideoats grama, blue grama, and western wheatgrass. In some locations, seed of legumes and forbs such as prairie bundleflower and Maximilian sunflower were included in the mixture. Once these areas become fully established, production is comparable to that of the Reference Plant Community. Total annual production ranges varies according to the species planted, established plants, and years of establishment. When reseeded areas and areas supporting native rangeland exist in the same pasture, they seldom are utilized at the same intensity because domestic livestock usually prefer plants growing on the native rangeland areas. When feasible, reseeded plant communities should be managed as separate pastures or units. Some seeded areas are invaded by trees and shrubs during the establishment period of the desired plants. These invader species commonly include elm, common hackberry, eastern redcedar, and eastern cottonwood. Occasional burning is effective in controlling establishment of these woody plants.

Resilience management. Following termination of cultivation, total annual production is quite variable and full recovery of the original plant community, including forbs and legumes, may take many decades. Additions of organic matter and minerals, deferred grazing, prescribed burning, and related management practices described earlier for this ecological site can be beneficial to the rehabilitation.

Community 4.2
Go-back Plant Community

This plant community also occurs on areas that were formerly farmed. When tillage operations ceased, the areas were allowed to revegetate or “go back” naturally in contrast to artificial reseeding to a selected species or group of species. The go-back process is a slow, gradual transformation that requires many years and many successional changes or stages in the plant community. The speed and extent of revegetation depends on the size of the area, level of grazing management and the proximity of the area to existing seed sources. In the initial stages of revegetation the site is usually dominated by annual forbs such as annual ragweed, slender snakecotton, Canadian horseweed, prairie sunflower, common sunflower, Mexican fireweed, camphorweed, and annual buckwheat. Gradually these are replaced by annual grasses including prairie threeawn, mat sandbur, tumblegrass, little barley, cheatgrass, and witchgrass. As plant succession progresses the plant community gradually becomes dominated by perennials. The major grasses include sand dropseed, composite dropseed, thin paspalum, purple lovegrass, red lovegrass, Scribner’s rosette grass, Carolina crabgrass, silver beardgrass, smooth bomegrass, kentucky bluegrass, and tumble windmillgrass. Common forbs are Cuman ragweed, white sagebrush, Carruth’s sagewort, white heath aster, Missouri goldenrod, and sand milkweed. Combinations of these plants can form a stable community. In time with prescribed grazing management, other perennial grasses and forbs common in the Reference Plant Community return to the site. Blue grama is a shortgrass that is very common to the native plant communities on this site. However, it seldom occurs in go-back communities, even after 40 to 50 years of plant succession. Some go-back areas are invaded by trees and shrubs. The more common include elm, common hackberry, eastern redcedar, eastern cottonwood, osage orange, honeylocust, and roughleaf dogwood. Occasional burning is effective in controlling these woody plants. Total annual production varies by site. This depends on seasonal precipitation and the stage of plant succession in the plant community.

Resilience management. Following termination of cultivation, total annual production is quite variable and full recovery of the original plant community, including forbs and legumes, may take many decades. Additions of organic matter and minerals, deferred grazing, prescribed burning, and related management practices described earlier for this ecological site can be beneficial to the rehabilitation.

Transition 1 to 2
State 1 to 2

Long-term management (approximately 30 years) without a forage and animal balance and heavy, continuous grazing without adequate recovery periods between grazing events will convert the Grassland State to a Shortgrass State made up of blue grama and buffalograss sod. Drought in combination with this type of management will quicken the rate at which this transition occurs.

Constraints to recovery. The ecological processes affected are the hydrologic and nutrient cycles. There is an increase in evaporation rate, runoff, and in bulk density. There is a decrease in infiltration, a change in plant composition, and the functional and structural groups have changed dominance. These are all examples of the soil and vegetation properties that have compromised the resilience of the Grassland State and therefore transitioned to a Shortgrass State.

Transition 1 to 3
State 1 to 3

Changes from a Grassland State to a Woody State lead to changes in hydrologic function, forage production, dominant functional and structural groups, and wildlife habitat. Understory plants may be negatively affected by trees and shrubs by reductions in light, soil moisture, and soil nutrients. Increases in tree and shrub density and size have the effects of reducing understory plant cover and productivity, and desirable forage grasses often are most severely reduced (Eddleman, 1983). As vegetation cover changes from grasses to trees, a greater proportion of precipitation is lost throughout interception and evaporation; therefore, less precipitation is available for producing herbaceous forage or for deep drainage or runoff (Thurow and Hester, 1997).

Constraints to recovery. Recovery is possible through management.

Transition 1 to 4
State 1 to 4

This transition is triggered by a management action as opposed to a natural event. Tillage, or breaking the ground with machinery for crop production, will move the Grassland State to a Tillage State.

Constraints to recovery. The resilience of the Reference State has been compromised by the fracturing and blending of the native virgin sod. The energy, hydrologic, and nutrient cycles are altered and vary from that of the Grassland State.

Restoration pathway 3 to 1
State 3 to 1

Restoration efforts will be costly, labor-intensive, and can take many years, if not decades, to return to a Grassland State. Once canopy levels reach greater than 20 percent, estimated cost to remove trees is very expensive and includes high energy inputs. The technologies needed in order to go from an invaded Woody State to a Grassland State include but are not limited to: prescribed burning— the use of fire as a tool to achieve a management objective on a predetermined area under conditions where the intensity and extent of the fire are controlled; brush management—manipulating woody plant cover to obtain desired quantities and types of woody cover and/or to reduce competition with herbaceous understory vegetation, in accordance with overall resource management objectives; and prescribed grazing—the controlled harvest of vegetation with grazing or browsing animals managed with the intent to achieve a specified objective. In addition, to grazing at an intensity that will maintain enough cover to protect the soil and maintain or improve the quantity and quality of desirable vegetation. When a juniper tree is cut and removed, the soil structure and the associated high infiltration rate may be maintained for over a decade (Hester, 1996). This explains why the area near the dripline usually has substantially greater forage production for many years after the tree has been cut. It also explains why runoff will not necessarily dramatically increase once juniper is removed. Rather, the water continues to infiltrate at high rates into soils previously ameliorated by junipers, thereby increasing deep drainage potential. In rangeland, deep drainage amounts can be 16 percent of the total rainfall amount per year (Thurow and Hester, 1997).