State 1
Savannah

Community 1.1
Mixed-grass Savannah

The Mixed-grass Savannah Community (1.1) is the reference community and is characterized as a hardwood savannah with up to 20 percent tree and shrub canopy cover. Historic records from the 1700’s indicate that early settlers and explorers found portions of this site to be heavily wooded. Other reports (Mann 2004) discuss the importance of human caused fire as an important factor in keeping open grasslands prior to European settlement. It is assumed the Mixed-grass Savannah Community (1.1) occurred over the majority of this ecological site in a dynamically shifting mosaic over time with the other two communities in the Savannah State. Little bluestem, Virginia wildrye, Canada wildrye, sedges, switchgrass, Indiangrass, beaked panicum (Panicum anceps), and rustyseed paspalum (Paspalum langei) dominate the herbaceous component of the site. Forbs commonly found on the site include tickclover (Desmodium spp.), wildbeans (Strophostyles spp.), lespedezas (Lespedeza spp.), and partridge pea (Chamaecrista fasciculata). Shrub and tree species found in the Mixed-grass Savannah Community (1.1) include species of oaks, pecan, hackberry (Celtis spp.), and elm (Ulmus spp.). Vines include greenbrier (Smilax spp.), grape (Vitis spp.), honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.), and peppervine (Ampelopsis spp.). The reference savannah community will shift to the Midgrass Savannah Community (1.2) under the stresses of improper grazing. The first species to decrease in dominance will be the most palatable grasses and forbs. This will initially result in an increase in composition of little bluestem and paspalums. If improper grazing continues, little bluestem will decrease and midgrasses such as broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), and Vasey’s grass (Paspalum urvillei). Less palatable forbs will also increase at this stage. Without fire and/or brush control, woody species on the site will increase and transition the site to the Woodland State (2). This can occur with or without the understory transitioning to the Midgrass community. This transition can occur without degradation of the herbaceous community from dominance by tallgrasses and palatable midgrasses to dominance by midgrasses. Brown and Archer (1999) concluded that even with a healthy and dense stand of grasses, woody species will populate the site and eventually dominate the community. Because the dominant woody species in the Woodland State are native species that occur as part of the Savannah State, the transition to the Woodland State is a linear process, with shrubs increasing soon after fire or brush control ceases. Unless some form of brush control takes place, woody species will increase to the 50 percent canopy cover that indicates a state change. This is a continual process. Managers need to detect the increase in woody species when canopy is less than 50 percent and take management action before the state change occurs. There is not a 10-year window before shrubs begin to increase followed by a rapid transition to the Woodland State. The drivers of the transition (lack of fire and lack of brush control) constantly pressure the system towards the Woodland State. The soils of this site are deep, loamy textured, and moderately permeable. The site generally receives additional water from outside the site. Infiltration is moderate and runoff is low. There is essentially no bare soil in this community. Plant basal cover and litter comprise all of the ground cover. Soils are highly fertile and hold moderately large amounts of soil moisture. This is a very productive site with high yields of good quality forage.

Community 1.2
Midgrass Savannah

The Midgrass Savannah Community (1.2) typically results from improper cattle grazing management over a long period of time combined with a lack of brush control. Indigenous or invading woody species increase on the site (with or without fire). Growing-season stress, usually from overgrazing, causes reduction in vigor and survival of tallgrasses and palatable midgrasses, which allows less palatable midgrasses and less palatable forbs to increase in the herbaceous community. Important grasses are bushy bluestem and Vasey’s grass. Unpalatable, shade-tolerant grasses and forbs begin replacing the midgrasses. Examples of forbs include cocklebur (Xanthium spp.), sumpweed (Iva annua), and beebalm (Monarda spp.). Shaded conditions favor cool-season grasses such as Texas wintergrass (Nassella leucotricha) and woodoats (Chasmanthium spp.). Woody canopy varies between 20 and 50 percent, depending on the severity of grazing, fire interval, amount of brush control, and availability of increaser species. Numerous shrub and tree species will encroach because overgrazing by livestock has reduced grass cover, exposed more soil, and reduced grass fuel for fire. Typically, trees such as oaks and ash (Fraxinus spp.) will increase in size, while other tree and shrub species such as bumelia (Sideroxylon spp.), sumacs (Rhus spp.), honey locust (Robinia rusbyi), winged elm (Ulmus alata), and Osage orange (Maclura pomifera) will increase in density. To control woody species populations, prescribed grazing and/or browsing and fire can be used to control smaller shrubs and trees, and mechanical removal of larger shrubs and trees may be necessary in older stands. Until the Midgrass Savannah Community (1.2) crosses the threshold into the Woodland Community (2.1), this community can be managed back toward the Savannah State (1.1) using management practices including prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, and strategic brush control. It may take several years to achieve this state, depending upon the climate and the aggressiveness of the treatment. Once invasive woody species begin to establish, returning fully to the native community is difficult, though it is possible to return to a similar plant community. Potential exists for soils to erode to the point that irreversible damage may occur. If soil-holding herbaceous cover decreases to the point that soils are no longer stable, the shrub overstory will not prevent erosion of the A and B soil horizons. This is a critical shift in the ecology of the site. Once the A-horizon has eroded, the hydrology, soil chemistry, soil microorganisms, and soil physics are altered to the point where intensive restoration is required to restore the site to another state or community. Simply changing management (improving grazing management or controlling brush) is not sufficient to restore the site within a reasonable period.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

The Mixed grass Savannah Plant Community (1.1) requires fire and/or brush control to maintain woody species cover below 20 percent. This community will shift to the Midgrass Savannah Community (1.2) when there is continued growing-season stress on tallgrasses. These stresses include improper grazing management that creates insufficient critical growing-season deferment, excess intensity of defoliation, repeated, long-term growing-season defoliation, and long-term drought. Increaser species (midgrasses and woody species) are generally endemic and released by disturbance. Woody species canopy exceeding 20 percent and/or dominance of tallgrasses and desirable midgrasses falling below 50 percent of species composition indicate a transition to the Midgrass Savannah Plant Community (1.2). The Mixed Grass Savannah Community can be maintained through the implementation of brush management combined with properly managed grazing that provides adequate growing-season deferment to allow establishment of tallgrass propagules and/or the recovery of vigor of stressed plants. Regardless of grazing management, without some form of brush control, the Mixed Grass Savannah Community will transition to the Woodland State (2), even if the understory component does not shift to dominance by mixed grasses. The driver for community shift 1.1A for the herbaceous component is improper grazing management, while the driver for the woody component is lack of fire and/or brush control.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

The Midgrass Savannah Plant Community (1.2) will return to the Mixed Grass Savannah Plant Community (1.1) with brush control and proper grazing management that provides sufficient critical growing-season deferment in combination with proper grazing intensity. Favorable moisture conditions will facilitate or accelerate this transition. The understory component may return to dominance by tall grasses and desirable midgrasses in the absence of fire (at least until shrub canopy cover reaches 50 percent). Reduction of the woody component will require inputs of fire and/or brush control. The understory and overstory components can act independently when canopy cover is less than 50 percent, meaning, an increase in shrub canopy cover can occur while proper grazing management creates an increase in desirable herbaceous species. The driver for community shift 1.2A for the herbaceous component is proper grazing management, while the driver for the woody component is fire and/or brush control.

State 2
Woodland

Community 2.1
Woodland

The Woodland Community (2.1) has an over 50 percent woody plant canopy, dominated by hardwoods such as pecan and oaks. The community loses its savannah appearance with native shrubs beginning to fill the open grassland portion of the savannah. Shade from overstory is the driving factor. This community results from the lack of effective brush control. Annual herbage production decreases due to a decline in soil structure and organic matter. Production of the overstory canopy has increased by a similar amount to the decrease in herbaceous production. Unpalatable woody species have increased in size and density. Common understory and midstory species that grow under a dense canopy include panicums, paspalums, tridens, woodoats, wildryes, Texas wintergrass, bristlegrass (Setaria), sedge, flatsedge (Cyperus spp.), rush (Juncus spp.), and fimbry (Fimbristylis spp.). Forbs include western ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), blood ragweed (Ambrosia trifida var. texana), sumpweed, cocklebur, mare’s tail (Equisetum spp.), and cattail (Typha latifolia). Trees, shrubs, and vines include elm, bumelia sumacs, hawthorn, grape , greenbriar, and ivy treebine (Cissus incisa). Texas wintergrass, threeawns (Aristida spp.) and annuals increase in the shade of the trees. Unpalatable invaders may occupy the interspaces between trees and shrubs. Plant vigor and productivity of grass species is reduced due to shade. Shade is a driving factor for the understory plant community. Without brush control, tree canopy will continue to increase until canopy cover approaches 80 percent. In this plant community, annual production is dominated by woody species. Browsing animals, such as goats and deer can find fair food value if browse plants have not been grazed excessively. Forage quantity and quality for cattle is low. Prescribed fire is not a viable treatment option for conversion of this site back to a semblance of the Savannah State (1). Chemical brush control on a large scale may not a treatment option; however, individual plant treatment with herbicides on small acreages may be a viable option. Mechanical treatment of this site, along with seeding, is the most viable treatment option although it may not be economical. This community is highly resilient. Intensive treatment is required to return to communities with less woody cover. Brush treatment tends to be short-lived. Treated areas rapidly return to the Woodland Community (2.1) due to the presence of propagules on, and adjacent to, treated areas. Observation shows that even effective treatment will require constant maintenance to suppress brush reestablishment. Without maintenance, canopy cover may exceed 50 percent in three to five years.

State 3
Converted

Community 3.1
Converted Land

The Converted Land Community (3.1) occurs when the site, either the Savannah State (1) or Woodland State (2), is cleared and plowed for planting to cropland, hayland, native grasses, tame pasture, or use as non-agricultural land. The Converted State includes cropland, tame pasture, hayland, rangeland, and go-back land. Agronomic practices are used with non-native forages in the Converted State and to make changes between the communities in the Converted State. The native component of the prairie is usually lost when seeding non-natives. Even when reseeding with natives, the ecological processes defining the past states of the site can be permanently changed. The Loamy Bottomland site is frequently converted to cropland or tame pasture sites because of its deep fertile soils, favorable soil/water/plant relationships, and level terrain. Hundreds of thousands of acres have been plowed up and converted to cropland, pastureland, or hayland. Small grains are the principal crop, and buffelgrass and bermudagrass are the primary introduced pasture species on loamy soils in this area. The Loamy Bottomland site can be an extremely productive forage producing site with the application of optimum amounts of fertilizer. Cropland, pastureland, and hayland are intensively managed with annual cultivation and/or frequent use of herbicides, pesticides, and commercial fertilizers to increase production. Both crop and pasturelands require weed and shrub control because seeds remain present on the site, either by remaining in the soil or being transported to the site. Converted sites require continual fertilization for crops or tame pasture (particularly bermudagrass) to perform well. Common introduced species include buffelgrass, coastal bermudagrass, kleingrass, and Old World bluestems (Bothriochloa spp.) which are used in hayland and tame pastures. Wheat, oats, forage sorghum, grain sorghum, cotton, and corn are the major crop species. Cropland and tame pasture require repeated and continual inputs of fertilizer and weed control to maintain the Converted State. The site is considered go-back land during the period between active management for pasture or cropland and the return to a native state.

Community 3.2
Abandoned Land

The Abandoned Land Community (3.2) occurs when the Converted Land Community (3.1) is abandoned or mismanaged. Mismanagement can include poor crop or haying management. Pastureland can transition to the Abandoned Land Community when subjected to improper grazing management (typically long-term overgrazing). Heavily disturbed soils allowed to go-back return to the Woodland State. Long-term cropping can create changes in soil chemistry and structure that make restoration to the reference state very difficult and/or expensive. Return to native prairie communities in the Savannah State is more likely to be successful if soil chemistry, microorganisms, and structure are not heavily disturbed. Preservation of favorable soil microbes increases the likelihood of a return to reference, or near reference conditions. Restoration to native prairie will require seedbed preparation and seeding of native species. Protocols and plant materials for restoring prairie communities is a developing portion of restoration science. Sites can be restored to the Savannah State in the short-term by seeding mixtures of commercially available native grasses. With proper management (prescribed grazing, weed control, brush control), these sites can come close to the diversity and complexity of Mixed-grass Savannah Community (1.1). It is unlikely that abandoned farmland will return to the Savannah State (1) without active brush management because the rate of shrub increase will exceed the rate of recovery by desirable grass species. The native component of the prairie is usually lost when seeding non-natives. Even when reseeding with natives, the ecological processes defining the past states of the site can be permanently changed.

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

The Converted Land Community (3.1) will transition to the Abandoned Land Community (3.2) if improperly managed as cropland, hayland, or pastureland. Each of these types of converted land is unstable and requires constant management input for maintenance or improvement. This community requires inputs of tillage, weed management, brush control, fertilizer, and reseeding of annual crops. The driver of this transition is the lack of management inputs necessary to maintain cropland, hayland, or pastureland.

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1

The Abandoned Land Community (3.2) will transition to the Converted Land Community (3.1) with proper management inputs. The drivers for this transition are weed control, brush control, tillage, proper grazing management, and range or pasture planting.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Shrubs and trees make up a portion of the plant community in the Savannah State (1), hence woody propagules are present. Therefore, the Savannah State is always at risk for shrub dominance and the transition to the Woodland State in the absence of fire. The driver for Transition T1A is lack of fire and/or brush control. Most fires will burn only the understory. Even with proper grazing and favorable climate conditions, lack of fire for years will allow trees and shrubs to increase in canopy to reach the 50 percent threshold level. The introduction of aggressive woody invader species increases the risk and accelerates the rate at which this transition state is likely to occur. This transition can occur from any community within the Savannah State (1), it is not dependent on degradation of the herbaceous community, but on the lack of brush control. Improper grazing and prolonged drought will provide a competitive advantage to shrubs, which will accelerate this process. Tallgrasses will decrease to less than five percent species composition.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The transition to the Converted State from the Savannah State occurs when the site is cleared and plowed for planting to cropland or hayland. The threshold for this transition is the plowing of the prairie soil and removal of the woody plant community. The Converted State includes cropland, tame pasture, and go-back land. The site is considered go-back land during the period between cessation of active cropping, fertilization, and weed control and the return to the native states. Agronomic practices are used to convert rangeland to the Converted State and to make changes between the communities in the Converted State. The driver for these transitions is management’s decision to farm the site.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Restoration of the Woodland State to the Savannah State requires substantial energy input. The driver for this restoration pathway is removal of woody species, restoration of native herbaceous species, and ongoing management of invasive species. Without maintenance, woody and invasive species are likely to return (probably rapidly) due to presence of propagules in the soil.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

The transition to the Converted State from the Woodland State (T2A) occurs when the site is cleared and plowed for planting to cropland or hayland. The size and density of brush in the Woodland State will require heavy equipment and energy-intensive practices (i.e. rootplowing, raking, rollerchopping, or heavy disking) to prepare a seedbed. The threshold for this transition is the plowing of the prairie soil and removal of the woody plant community. The Converted State includes cropland, tame pasture, and go-back land. The site is considered go-back land during the period between cessation of active cropping, fertilization, and weed control and the return to the native states. Agronomic practices are used to convert rangeland to the Converted State and to make changes between the communities in the Converted State. The driver for these transitions is management’s decision to farm the site.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

Restoration from the Converted State can occur in the short-term through active restoration or over the long-term due to cessation of agronomic practices. Cropland and tame pasture require repeated and continual inputs of fertilizer and weed control to maintain the Converted State. If the soil chemistry and structure have not been overly disturbed (which is likely to occur with tame pasture) the site can be restored to the Savannah State. The level of disturbance while in the Converted State determines whether the site restoration pathway is likely to be R3A (a return to the Savannah State) or T3A (a return to the Woodland State). Return to native prairie communities in the Savannah State is more likely to be successful if soil chemistry and structure are not heavily disturbed. Preservation of favorable soil microbes increases the likelihood of a return to reference, or near reference conditions as does remnant seed sources. Converted sites can return to the Savannah State through active restoration, including seedbed preparation and seeding of native grass and forb species. Protocols and plant materials for restoring prairie communities is a developing part of restoration science. The driver for both of these restoration pathways is the cessation of agricultural disturbances.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

Transition from the Converted State can occur in the short-term through cessation of agronomic practices. Cropland and tame pasture require repeated and continual inputs of fertilizer and weed control to maintain the Converted State. If the soil chemistry and structure have not been overly disturbed (which is likely to occur with tame pasture) the site can be restored to the Savannah State. The level of disturbance while in the Converted State determines whether the site restoration pathway is likely to be R3A (a return to the Savannah State) or T3A (a return to the Woodland State).