State 1
Reference State

The reference plant community is categorized as mesic forest community dominated by mixed deciduous species, primarily sugar maple (Acer saccharum), and sporadic occurrence of several conifer species. Although forest communities can vary greatly in terms of species composition and stand structure, depending on type, degree, and frequency of disturbance, two common phases predominate: advanced succession community and rejuvenated community.

Community 1.1
Advanced Successional Community

In the absence of major, stand-replacing disturbance this community is dominated by sugar maple, yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) and eastern hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis), often with scattered occurrence of old white pines. This was the most common condition in pre-European settlement forests. The tree sapling and shrub layer in this community is not well developed due to dense shade created by multi-story tree canopy. Most common, but low coverage shrub species are American hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), and hazelnuts (Corylus, spp.). The herb layer is relatively species rich, but moderate in abundance. The dominant herbs typically include bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and big leaf aster (Eurybia macrophylla). Other common herb species include Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), partridge berry (Mitchella repens), Hairy Solomon’s seal (Polygonatum pubescens), and false Solomon’s seal (Maianthemum racemosum). It is important to note that in most current mature stands, hemlock is significantly under-represented compared to historic conditions. Apparently, this lack of hemlocks is due to seed source elimination during the early logging era and herbivory by currently high white tail deer populations.

Community 1.2
Rejuvenated Community Phase

Disturbances described in Pathway 1.1A lead to increased species and structural diversity of the forest community. Depending on seed source, red oak, red maple and—in many cases—white pine regenerate in the canopy openings and in time join sugar maple and hemlock in the dominant canopy. White pine easily exceeds the height of the deciduous canopy and often remains on the site, as scattered individuals, for up to four centuries. This exceptional longevity virtually assures perpetual white pine seed source on the site. The relative density of the shrub and herb layers also increases during this stage. Species composition remains relatively unchanged, but abundance changes can be significant. Particularly beaked hazelnut can form dense thickets and big leaf aster often forms continuous carpets. Many other herb species that were present with very low abundance in the advanced-succession community typically form much larger population clusters.

Pathway 1.1.A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Natural mortality in the oldest age classes—sporadic small-scale blow-downs and ice storms—create openings for entry of mid-tolerant species such as red oak and red maple.

Pathway 1.2.A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

In the absence of canopy reducing disturbances natural succession leads to community dominance by the most shade-tolerant species resulting in return to community phase 1.1.

State 2
Early to Mid-Successional State

Following disturbances described in Transition T1A a wide range of forest community phases may come into temporary existence, the three most common ones are red oak -red maple -sugar maple, red oak - red maple, and aspen-paper birch.

Community 2.1
Aspen - paper birch

These two species have a very narrow window of environmental and ecological conditions for successful establishment. Main requirements are exposed mineral soil and elimination, most effectively by fire, of on-site seed sources of potential competing vegetation. In addition, adequate soil moisture must be available for initial seedling development. Once seedlings are firmly established height growth of both species is relatively rapid and able to outgrow most competitive species. Paper birch seedlings and saplings tolerate partial shade and often become members of mixed species communities. This is not true for aspen which requires continuous full-sun exposure for survival. Aspen stands are initially very dense due to sprouting from extensive lateral roots, but rapid natural thinning ensues as stems compete for available light.

Community 2.2
Red oak - Red maple

This community phase may occur via two different origins: 1. By sprouting from stumps or by local seed source, following stand-leveling disturbance, or 2. By invading and succeeding a pioneer aspen-birch community. For this reason, tree species composition and community structure in early stages of development vary considerably, from pure canopy dominance by red oak and red maple, singly, or in combination, to modest, or strong presence of mature, or decaying, aspen and/or paper birch. The shrub layer, dominated by beaked hazelnut (Corylus cornuta), typically reaches its best development in this community phase.

Community 2.3
red oak - red maple / sugar maple-white spruce/ sugar maple - beaked hazelnut/ bigleaf aster

This community phase represents distinct transition into mid-successional state, by strong presence in second canopy, or in reproductive layers, of shade-tolerant species, sugar maple, basswood, eastern hemlock, or balsam fir and white spruce. Sporadic occurrence of individual white pine trees also is common. Eastern hemlock, although historically a prominent member of mature communities on this site, is today under-represented presumably due to lack of seed source and selective browsing by the white-tailed deer.

Pathway 2.1.A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Natural succession leads to community dominance by the most shade-tolerant species.

Pathway 2.2.A
Community 2.2 to 2.3

Succession by shade-tolerant species, sugar maple, basswood and in some cases also balsam fir and white spruce.

Pathway 2.3.A
Community 2.3 to 2.1

State 3
Agricultural State

This State is composed of crops, hay, or pasture.

Community 3.1
Agricultural Community

This community phase is composed of crops, hay, or pasture.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Major stand-replacing disturbance. In pre-European settlement time, the event was most often a severe blow down, sometimes followed by fires. Such blow downs have been estimated to occur in this part of Wisconsin every 300 to 400 years (Schulte and Mladenoff, 2005). In post settlement virtually every acre has been logged either by clear cutting or successive cuts targeting species marketable at that time. Post logging slash fires also have been a significant factor in most areas. These disturbances created the environment suitable for natural regeneration of many shade-intolerant species and for commercial planting.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Elimination of forest cover, application of agricultural practices.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Abandonment of agricultural practices and allowing natural vegetation to colonize the site or apply artificial afforestation. The time required for forest community to reach the reference state conditions may exceed 100 years.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Removal of forest cover, tilling and application of other agricultural techniques to grow agricultural crops.