Ecological site R102BY008SD

3. Invaded State

4. Conifer/Invaded State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)

1.1. Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread

T1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion
T1B	-	Conifer invasion, no fire
T1C	-	Tillage
T2A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
T2B	-	Tillage
T3A	-	Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning
T3C	-	Conifer invasion, no fire
T3B	-	Tillage
T4A	-	Brush management, prescribed burning
T4B and T4D	-	Brush management, prescribed burning
T4C	-	Brush management
T4E	-	Brush management, tillage
T5A	-	Seeding
T5B and T5C	-	Seeding, cropped and abandoned

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.2. Prairie Sandreed-Switchgrass-Needle and Thread

1.3. Sand Bluestem-Switchgrass-Prairie Sandreed

1.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
1.1B	-	Prescribed burning
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing, prescribed burning
1.3A	-	Prescribed grazing, prescribed burning

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread

2.2. Prairie Sandreed-Switchgrass-Needle and Thread-Kentucky Bluegrass

2.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
2.2A	-	Prescribed grazing

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Kentucky Bluegrass-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread

3.2. Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

3.2A	-	Time w/wo disturbances

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Eastern Red Cedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Needle and thread

4.2. Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass

4.3. Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper

4.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion
4.2A	-	No fire

State 5 submodel, plant communities

5.1. Annual Crops

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site (ES). This state was dominated by warm-season grasses with cool-season grasses subdominant. In the time before settlers from Europe arrived, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the Reference condition included periods of fluctuating amounts of precipitation, sporadic fire, and herbivory by insects and large ungulates. Frequent surface fires (every 3 to 5 years) and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. The less grazing-tolerant tall warm-season grasses and cool-season grasses would have declined. Prairie sandreed would have increased with ongoing disturbance. Today, a similar state can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest.

Community 1.1
Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread

Interpretations are based primarily on the 1.1 Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and thread Plant Community Phase. The potential vegetation was about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses subdominant. The major grasses included sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii) and/or big bluestem, prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), little bluestem, needle and thread, and porcupinegrass. Other grass or grass-like species included sideoats grama, western wheatgrass, blue grama, hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), and sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus). This plant community was resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high tolerance to drought. This was a sustainable plant community in regard to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	2280	3114	3695
Forb	155	263	410
Shrub/Vine	65	123	195
Total	2500	3500	4300

Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0214, Till Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 1.2
Prairie Sandreed-Switchgrass-Needle and Thread

This plant community evolved under heavy, continuous grazing or from overutilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included prairie sandreed, switchgrass, needle and thread, blue grama, sand dropseed, and threadleaf sedge. Grasses of secondary importance included little bluestem, purple lovegrass (Eragrostis spectabilis), hairy grama, western wheatgrass, sand bluestem and/or big bluestem, and porcupinegrass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include cudweed sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana), green sagewort (Artemisia dracunculoides), western ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), and scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum). This plant community had similar plant composition to the 2.2 Prairie Sandreed-Switchgrass-Needle and Thread-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass. When compared to the 1.1 Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and thread Plant Community Phase, prairie sandreed, needle and thread, sand dropseed, threadleaf sedge, and blue grama increased. Bluestems and porcupine grass decrease and production was reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term.

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0214, Till Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 1.3
Sand Bluestem-Switchgrass-Prairie Sandreed

This plant community was a result of fire occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years). This phase could have also resulted from a combination of grazing events immediately following early season fire (i.e., large ungulates attracted to highly nutritious vegetative growth following a fire). These events would have caused a reduction in cool-season grasses and an increase in warm-season grasses. The warm-season grasses were more tolerant of shorter return intervals of fire and would have increased in vigor and production leading to a temporary shift to this phase. Needlegrasses would have decreased most significantly amongst the cool-season grasses. The potential vegetation was about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses. The major grasses included sand bluestem and/or big bluestem, switchgrass, prairie sandreed, Indiangrass, little bluestem, and sideoats grama. Other grass or grass-like species included blue grama, hairy grama, sand dropseed, needleandthread, porcupine grass, and threadleaf sedge. This plant community was not resistant to change and would have readily shifted back to the 1.1 Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needlegrass Plant Community Phase with a return of more normal fire return intervals.

Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0215, Till Plains, warm-season dominant.. Warm-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	2	5	15	25	30	15	7	1	0	0

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Heavy, continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below-normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 1.2 Prairie Sandreed-Switchgrass-Needle and Thread Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest, and occasional grazing events immediately following early season fire caused a reduction in cool-season grasses and an increase in warm-season grasses. The warm-season grasses were more tolerant of shorter return intervals of fire and would increase in vigor and production leading to a temporary shift to the 1.3 Sand Bluestem-Switchgrass-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing and prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest and prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread Plant Community Phase.

State 2
Native/Invaded State

The Native/Invaded State represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by warm-season grasses with cool-season grasses subdominant. It can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and prescribed burning and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Grazing tolerant species will increase with disturbance.

Community 2.1
Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread

This plant community phase is similar to the 1.1 Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and thread Plant Community Phase but it also contains minor amounts of nonnative invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (up to about 15 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community is dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses subdominant. The major grasses include sand bluestem and/or big bluestem, prairie sandreed, switchgrass, little bluestem, needle and thread, and porcupinegrass. Other grass or grass-like species include sideoats grama, western wheatgrass, blue grama, hairy grama, threadleaf sedge, Indiangrass, and sand dropseed. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0215, Till Plains, warm-season dominant.. Warm-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	2	5	15	25	30	15	7	1	0	0

Community 2.2
Prairie Sandreed-Switchgrass-Needle and Thread-Kentucky Bluegrass

This plant community is a result of heavy, continuous grazing, continuous season-long grazing, or from overutilization during extended periods of drought. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include prairie sandreed, switchgrass, needle and thread, Kentucky bluegrass, blue grama, sand dropseed, and threadleaf sedge. Grasses of secondary importance include little bluestem, purple lovegrass (Eragrostis spectabillis), hairy grama, western wheatgrass, sand bluestem and/or big bluestem, and porcupinegrass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include cudweed sagewort, green sagewort, western ragweed, and scurfpea.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Heavy, continuous grazing that includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below-normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 2.2 Prairie Sandreed-Switchgrass-Needle and thread-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and thread Plant Community Phase.

State 3
Invaded State

The invaded state is a result of encroachment mainly by invasive introduced cool-season grasses. The ecological processes are not functioning, especially the biotic processes and the hydrologic functions. The introduced cool-season grasses cause reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. The opportunity for high-intensity spring burns is severely reduced by early green-up and increased moisture and humidity at the soil surface and grazing pressure cannot cause a reduction in the dominance sodgrass . Production is limited to the sod-forming species. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases, energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low-producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by the rooting depth of the dominate species.

Community 3.1
Kentucky Bluegrass-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread

This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, prairie sandreed, needle and thread, sedge, and blue grama. The dominance of Kentucky bluegrass is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short, as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.

Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0214, Till Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 3.2
Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

This plant community developed under continuous, heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances (e.g., heavy use areas, defoliation by rodents, etc.). The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable, but often include non-native invasive and early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow-rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal-related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move toward another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites. This community can be renovated to improve the production capability; however, if management changes are not made the vegetation could revert back to the invasive or early seral species.

Figure 18. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1655	2416	3040
Forb	120	203	310
Shrub/Vine	25	81	150
Total	1800	2700	3500

Figure 19. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0214, Till Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1

This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 3.1 Kentucky Bluegrass-Prairie Sandreed-Needleandthread Plant Community Phase.

State 4
Conifer/Invaded State

The conifer/Invaded State is dominated (canopy exceeds 20 percent of total surface area) by areas where trees have become established or have encroached onto the site due to the absence of periodic fire. This state is dominated by eastern redcedar or Rocky Mountain juniper with cool-season grasses subdominant. The plant community can develop into a closed canopy that impedes the reproductive capability of the major native perennial grass species. A single eastern redcedar tree with a crown diameter of seven feet eliminates the equivalent of three pounds of forage. Further, the forage potential of a pasture with 250 mature eastern redcedar trees per acre (or one tree every 13 feet) is reduce by 50 percent. It is suggested that reducing stocking rates by ten percent for every 50 trees per acre. The increase in tree canopy which is a result of a disruption of the natural- and human-related fire regimes that occurred prior to settlement by Europeans, which kept trees from encroaching into much of the grasslands.

Community 4.1
Eastern Red Cedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Needle and thread

This plant community evolved due to the invasion of conifers, such as eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. This phase was a result of the absence of periodic fire. These events may cause a reduction in warm-season grasses and an increase in cool-season grasses and allow for the encroachment of conifers. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 50 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 30 percent trees. Dominant grasses and grass-likes include needle and thread, sand bluestem, prairie sandreed, and switchgrass. As the canopy increases, warm-season grasses tend to decrease as the cool-season grasses increase. Forbs will be diverse. Trees species will include eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. When compared to the 1.1 Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread Plant Community Phase, coniferous trees have increased significantly and herbaceous component has decreased. This plant community is susceptible to the encroachment of eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper.

Figure 20. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1495	2092	2470
Forb	105	173	260
Shrub/Vine	0	35	70
Total	1600	2300	2800

Figure 21. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0212, Till Plains, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	23	34	15	6	5	4	0	0

Community 4.2
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass

This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing, or heavy, continuous season-long grazing, or non-use or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years). When compared to the 4.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Needle and thread Plant Community, the amount of non-native invasive cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass have increased significantly. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, prairie sandreed, needle and thread, sedge, and blue grama. The dominance of Kentucky bluegrass is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Production is limited to the sod-forming species. The period that palatability is high is relatively short, as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases, energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low-producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by the rooting depth of the dominant species. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.

Community 4.3
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper

This plant community phase is a result of no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for ten or more years). Coniferous trees have increased significantly, and the herbaceous component has decreased. With the dominance of the coniferous trees such as eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper, the canopy covers the area and grass species are unable to survive. Grass production for livestock is severely limited. Prescribed burning before the juniper species reach maturity and are still susceptible to fire (less than 5 feet in height), or mechanical brush management can be used to maintain or recover 4.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2

Non-use andno surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and/or heavy, continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will shift this plant community to the 5.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.3

No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will shift this plant community to the 4.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase.

State 5
Crop Production State

The Crop Production State is characterized by the production of annual crops using a variety of tillage and cropping systems along with management practices.

Community 5.1
Annual Crops

This plant community developed with the use of a variety of tillage systems and cropping systems for the production of annual crops including corn, soybeans, wheat, and a variety of other crops.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Non-use and no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and/or heavy, continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and invasion of conifer will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Needle and thread Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4).

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Heavy, continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.1 Kentucky Bluegrass-Prairie Sandreed-Needle and thread Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead the Invaded State (State 3) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Transition T3C
State 3 to 4

No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and invasion of conifer will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4).

Transition T3B
State 3 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Restoration pathway T4A
State 4 to 1

Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 4.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Needle and thread Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4) over a threshold to the Reference State (State 1).

Restoration pathway T4B and T4D
State 4 to 2

Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with prescribed burning may lead this 4.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2). Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with prescribed burning prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 4.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Restoration pathway T4C
State 4 to 3

Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers may lead this 4.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 4) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3).

Transition T4E
State 4 to 5

Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Restoration pathway T5A
State 5 to 2

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 5) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Restoration pathway T5B and T5C
State 5 to 3

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 5) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3). Cropping followed by abandonment may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3) and more specifically to the 3.2 Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer Plant Community Phase.

Additional community tables

Table 8. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			875–1925
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	525–1400	–
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	350–1050	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	175–700	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–525	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–175	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			350–700
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	350–700	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–105	–
3	Needlegrass			350–525
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	175–525	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	175–525	–
4	Short Warm-season Grasses			105–350
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	35–175	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	35–175	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	35–175	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–105	–
5	Other Native Grasses			70–175
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–175	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	35–105	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	35–105	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–70	–
6	Grass-likes			35–175
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	35–175	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–105	–
Forb
7	Forbs			175–350
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	35–105	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	35–70	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	35–70	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	35–70	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	35–70	–
	buckwheat	ERIOG	Eriogonum	0–70	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	35–70	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	35–70	–
	hoary puccoon	LICA12	Lithospermum canescens	35–70	–
	Carolina puccoon	LICA13	Lithospermum caroliniense	0–70	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	35–70	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	35–70	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	35–70	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	35–70	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	35–70	–
	longbract spiderwort	TRBR	Tradescantia bracteata	35–70	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–35	–
	lacy tansyaster	MAPI	Machaeranthera pinnatifida	0–35	–
	prairie groundsel	PAPL12	Packera plattensis	0–35	–
	Carolina larkspur	DECAV2	Delphinium carolinianum ssp. virescens	0–35	–
	smooth horsetail	EQLA	Equisetum laevigatum	0–35	–
	yellow sundrops	CASE12	Calylophus serrulatus	0–35	–
	Flodman's thistle	CIFL	Cirsium flodmanii	0–35	–
	groundplum milkvetch	ASCR2	Astragalus crassicarpus	0–35	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–35	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			70–175
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	35–105	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	35–70	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–70	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–35	–
	western sandcherry	PRPUB	Prunus pumila var. besseyi	0–35	–

Table 9. Community 3.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			540–1215
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	405–1080	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	135–540	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–81	–
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	0–81	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			0–135
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–135	–
3	Needlegrass			270–540
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	270–540	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–81	–
4	Short Warm-season Grasses			135–405
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	54–270	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	54–270	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–216	–
5	Other Native Grasses			27–216
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–135	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–54	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	27–54	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–27	–
6	Grass-likes			54–270
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	54–270	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–81	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			81–324
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	54–324	–
	brome	BROMU	Bromus	27–216	–
Forb
8	Forbs			135–270
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	27–108	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	27–81	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	27–81	–
	smooth horsetail	EQLA	Equisetum laevigatum	0–81	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	27–81	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	0–81	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–54	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	27–54	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	27–54	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–54	–
	buckwheat	ERIOG	Eriogonum	0–54	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	0–27	–
	prairie groundsel	PAPL12	Packera plattensis	0–27	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	0–27	–
	Flodman's thistle	CIFL	Cirsium flodmanii	0–27	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–27	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–27	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			27–135
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–54	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–54	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–27	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–27	–

Table 10. Community 4.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			115–460
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	46–460	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–230	–
2	Needlegrass			0–345
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–345	–
3	Short Warm-season Grasses			46–230
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	23–184	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–115	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–46	–
4	Other Native Grasses			0–115
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–92	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–46	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–23	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–23	–
5	Grass-likes			23–161
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	23–161	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–46	–
6	Non-Native Grasses			575–1265
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	460–1150	–
	bromelia	BROME	Bromelia	23–230	–
Forb
7	Forbs			115–230
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	23–115	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	23–115	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	23–115	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	23–92	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–69	–
	smooth horsetail	EQLA	Equisetum laevigatum	0–69	–
	buckwheat	ERIOG	Eriogonum	0–69	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	23–69	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	0–69	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–46	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–46	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			0–69
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–23	–

Interpretations

Animal community

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations
The following table lists annual suggested initial stocking rates with average growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. The current plant community composition often does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ES description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. More accurate carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity. Stocking rates are calculated using Animal-Unit-Month (AUM), which is the amount of forage required by cow, with or without calf, for one month.

Bluestem/Prairie Sandreed/Needlegrass (1.1 and 3.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 3,500
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.96

Sandreed/Switchgrass/Needle and Thread/Kentucky Bluegrass (3.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2,700
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.74

Kentucky Bluegrass/Prairie Sandreed/Needle and Thread (4.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2,300
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.63

Annual/Pioneer, Non-Native Perennial (4.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 900
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.25

*Based on 912 lbs./acre (air-dry weight) per Animal Unit Month (AUM), and on 25 percent harvest efficiency (refer to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), National Range and Pasture Handbook).

Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland, in this area, may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements and added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B, with some soils in hydrologic group A. Infiltration and runoff potential for this site varies from moderate to high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be an area where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by blue grama, bluegrass, and smooth bromegrass will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Recreational uses

This site provides opportunities for hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching and other activities. The wide variety of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Other information

Ecological Site Correlation Issues and Questions:

• SD135 Yankton County, SD did not use the (TaE) Talmo-Thurman complex, 15 to 40 percent slopes, (national symbol gypk) (Thurman - R102BY008SD ESD) as used in the adjoining SD027 Clay County, SD. SD135 Yankton County, SD (TaE) Talmo-Thurman complex, 15 to 40 percent slopes, (national symbol g129) (Thurman – R55CY009SD ESD) and should be split correlated between MLRA55C and MLRA102B; and also a future project will be required to determine the correct surface texture of the Thurman soil.

• SD083 Lincoln County, SD (ThB) Thurman loamy fine sand, terrace, 2 to 6 percent slopes, (national symbol 2tv2v) should be split correlated between MLRA102B and MLRA102C to determine the correct ESD for the MLRA. A future project will be required to determine the correct surface texture of the Thurman soil in the MLRA map unit as there is a difference from the original map unit in Lincoln County as this has an affect on determining the correct ESD.
• Reference and alternative states within the state and transition model may not be fully documented and could require additional field sampling for refinement.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

There is no NRCS clipping data and other inventory currently available for this site. Information presented here has been derived using field observations from range-trained personnel. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; and Bruce Kunze, Soil Scientist, NRCS.

Data Source Sample Period State County
None

Other references

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C. Carpenter, and W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: sections and subsections of the coterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. Washington, DC.

Gilbert, M.C., Whited, P.M., Clairain Jr, E.J., & Smith, R.D. 2006. A Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Prairie Potholes. Washington, DC.

Samson, F.B., & Knopf, F.L. 1996. Prairie Conservation Preserving North America's Most Endangered Ecosystem. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. Accessed March 2018.

United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook, Revision 1. Grazing Lands Technology Institute. 214.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296.

USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, accessed 27 March 2018). National Plant Data Team.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. 2013. Level III and Level IV Ecoregions of the Continental United States. Corvallis, OR, U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, map scale 1:3,000,000. Available at http://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- continental-united-states. (Accessed 1 March 2018).

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE. http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/

USDA, NRCS. National Water and Climate Center, Portland, OR. http://wcc.nrcs.usda.gov

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, Fort Collins, CO. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov

Contributors

Megan Baxter
Stan Boltz

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 2/09/2024

Acknowledgments

Contact for Lead Authors: Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS), Redfield Soil Survey Office, Redfield, SD and Stanton Soil Survey Office, Stanton, NE; Lance Howe (Lance.Howe@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; Steve Winter (Steven.Winter@usda.gov), Soil Scientist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; and Greg Clark (Greg.Clark@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Stanton, NE.

Additional Information Acknowledgment: Jason Hermann (Jason.Hermann@usda.gov), Area Rangeland Management Specialist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD.

This Provisional Ecological Site concept has passed both Quality Control and Quality Assurance processes. It was officially approved for publication by David Kraft as of 11/12/2020.

Non-discrimination Statement
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To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, available online and at any USDA office, or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632- 9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2) fax: (202) 690-7442; or (3) email: program.intake@usda.gov.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	David Schmidt, Tim Nordquist, Stan Boltz
Contact for lead author
Date	12/07/2004
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Rills should not be present.
Presence of water flow patterns:
Barely observable.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Slight pedastalling on bunch grasses.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground less than 10% and less than 2 inches in diameter.
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Active gullies should not be present.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Little to no plant litter movement. Plant litter remains in place and is not moved by erosional forces.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Stability class usually 4-6. Typical high root content protects soil surface from erosion.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Use soil series description for depth and color of A-horizon.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Healthy, deep rooted native grasses enhance infiltration and reduce runoff.
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
No compaction layer should be evident.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Tall warm-season rhizomatous grasses >>

Sub-dominant:
Mid warm-season grasses > mid cool-season bunchgrasses >

Other:
Short warm-season grasses = forbs > short grass-like species = shrubs > short cool-season grasses

Additional:
Due to differing root structure and distribution, Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass do not fit into reference plant community F/S groups.
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little to no evidence of decadence or mortality.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
60-70%, roughly 0.5 inch thick or less. Litter cover is in contact with soil surface.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Production ranges from 2,500-4,500 lbs./acre (air-dry weight). Reference value production is 3,500 lbs./acre (air-dry weight).
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Refer to State and Local Noxious Weed List
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All species are capable of reproducing.

Download reference sheet

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Ecosystem states

3. Invaded State

4. Conifer/Invaded State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)