Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site R102BY011SD
Clayey
Last updated: 2/01/2024
Accessed: 11/21/2024
General information
Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 102B–Till Plains
The Till Plains (102B) is located within the Western Lake Section of the Central Lowland Province of the Interior Plains. It is entirely in South Dakota, encompassing 2,215 square miles (Figure 1). The elevation ranges from 1,140 to 1,880 feet. The MLRA is characterized by glaciated, nearly level to hilly plains populated by stagnation and end moraines, glacial outwash terraces, and floodplains as the major landforms. The dominant parent materials are silty drift, glacial till, glacial outwash, and alluvium. (USDA-NRCS, 2006)
The dominant soil order in this MLRA is Mollisols. The soils in the area dominantly have a mesic temperature regime, a udic ustic moisture regime and mixed or smectitic mineralogy. They generally are very deep, well drained to poorly drained, and clayey or loamy. This area is in the western area of the tall grass prairie and supports big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), porcupine grass (Hesperostipa spartea), and green needlegrass (Nassella viridula) as the dominant native species. Cattails (Typha), prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinate), bulrush (Cyperaceae) and reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) are commonly found on the poorly drained soils. (USDA-NRCS, 2006).
Classification relationships
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): Till Plains (102B) (USDA-NRCS, 2006)
USFS Subregions: North Central Glaciated Plains Section (251B); Outer Coteau des Prairies (251Bb); Yankton Hills and Valleys (251Bf); Northwest Iowa Plains (251Bd); (Cleland et al., 2007).
US EPA Level IV Ecoregion: Prairie Coteau (46k); James River Lowland (46n); Loess Prairies (47a); Big Sioux Basin (46m) - (USEPA, 2013)
Ecological site concept
The Clayey ecological site occurs on upland areas. Soils are well drained and have greater than 40 percent clay in the surface or subsoil. The surface and subsoil textures typically are silty clay or clay. Some soils have a loamy surface and a clayey subsoil. In some areas the surface layer may consist of stony to extremely stony. Slopes can range from zero to six percent.
Vegetation in the Reference State includes needlegrasses, bluestems, and western wheatgrass. Forbs include goldenrods, sageworts, heath aster, and scurfpeas. Non-native grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and invasive woody species such as Eastern Redcedar may invade the site due to changes in disturbance regime.
Associated sites
| R102BY012SD |
Thin Upland These sites occur on uplands. Soils are well drained and will effervesce with acid at or near the surface. The central concept soil series are Ethan and Betts, but other series are included. |
|---|---|
| R102BY020SD |
Loamy Overflow These sites occur on uplands swales. Soils are moderately well drained which have water flow into and over or through the site. The central concept soil series are Trent and Viborg but other series are included. |
| R102BY010SD |
Loamy These sites occur on uplands. Soils are well drained and have less than 40 percent clay in the subsoil. The central concept soil series are Egan, and Wentworth, but other series are included. |
Similar sites
| R102BY021SD |
Clayey Overflow A Clayey overflow site will have less green needlegrass and higher production than a Clayey site. |
|---|---|
| R102BY010SD |
Loamy The Loamy site is in a similar landscape position, but the soils have less than 40 percent clay in the surface or subsoil. A Loamy site has more big bluestem, less green needlegrass, and higher production than a Clayey site. |
Table 1. Dominant plant species
| Tree |
Not specified |
|---|---|
| Shrub |
Not specified |
| Herbaceous |
(1) Nassella viridula |
Physiographic features
This site occurs on nearly level to moderately sloping uplands.
Figure 2. Site Distribution Map for the Clayey site in MLRA 102B.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
| Landforms |
(1)
Plain
(2) Hill (3) Terrace |
|---|---|
| Flooding frequency | None |
| Ponding frequency | None |
| Elevation | 335 – 579 m |
| Slope | 1 – 25% |
| Water table depth | 203 cm |
| Aspect | Aspect is not a significant factor |
Climatic features
Major Land Resource Area 102B is considered to have a continental climate with cold winters and relatively hot summers, low to moderate humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature may also abound. The climate is the result of the location of this MLRA near the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the Northern Great Plains and air masses move freely across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.
Annual precipitation typically ranges from 24 to 26 inches per year. The average annual temperature is about 46°F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 14°F (Wentworth 2 WNW, South Dakota, to about 18°F (Canton 4 WNW, SD). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 72°F (Wentworth 2 WNW, SD), to about 73°F (Canton 4 WNW, SD). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 57°F. This large annual range attests to the continental nature of the climate of this area. Hourly winds are estimated to average about 11 miles per hour (mph) annually, ranging from about 13 mph during the spring to about 10 mph during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 mph.
Growth of cool-season plants begins in early to mid-March, slowing or ceasing in late June. Warm-season plants begin growth about mid-May and continue to early or mid-September. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.
Table 3. Representative climatic features
| Frost-free period (characteristic range) | 124-127 days |
|---|---|
| Freeze-free period (characteristic range) | 138-140 days |
| Precipitation total (characteristic range) | 660 mm |
| Frost-free period (actual range) | 123-128 days |
| Freeze-free period (actual range) | 137-141 days |
| Precipitation total (actual range) | 660-686 mm |
| Frost-free period (average) | 126 days |
| Freeze-free period (average) | 139 days |
| Precipitation total (average) | 660 mm |
Figure 3. Monthly precipitation range
Figure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range
Figure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range
Figure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 8. Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
-
(1) CENTERVILLE 6 SE [USC00391579], Beresford, SD
-
(2) CANTON [USC00391392], Canton, SD
-
(3) MONTROSE 8N [USC00395738], Montrose, SD
-
(4) MADISON 2SE [USC00395090], Madison, SD
-
(5) WENTWORTH 2.5 WNW [USC00399042], Wentworth, SD
Influencing water features
No riparian areas or wetland features are directly associated with this site.
Soil features
The common features of soils in this site are the clay loam to clay textured subsurface soils with slopes ranging from one to 25 percent. The soils in this site are well drained and formed in till or residuum. The clay loam to silty clay surface layer is typically three to six inches thick. The soils have a very slow infiltration rate. This site typically should show slight to no evidence of rills, wind scoured areas, or pedestalled plants. If present, water flow paths are broken, irregular in appearance, or discontinuous. The soil surface is stable and intact. Subsurface soil layers are nonrestrictive to water movement and root penetration. These soils are mainly susceptible to water erosion. The hazard of water erosion increases on slopes greater than about nine percent. Loss of 50 percent or more of the surface layer of the soils on this site can result in a shift in species composition and production.
The central concept soil series for this site is Beadle, but other series are included.
Access Web Soil Survey (http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm) for specific local soils information.
Table 4. Representative soil features
| Surface texture |
(1) Clay loam (2) Silty clay |
|---|---|
| Family particle size |
(1) Clayey |
| Drainage class | Well drained |
| Permeability class | Very slow |
| Soil depth | 64 – 203 cm |
| Surface fragment cover <=3" | 0 – 4% |
| Surface fragment cover >3" | 0 – 2% |
| Available water capacity (0-101.6cm) |
10.16 – 15.24 cm |
| Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-101.6cm) |
0 – 20% |
| Electrical conductivity (0-101.6cm) |
0 – 4 mmhos/cm |
| Sodium adsorption ratio (0-101.6cm) |
0 – 1 |
| Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-101.6cm) |
6.1 – 8.4 |
| Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified) |
0 – 8% |
| Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified) |
0 – 2% |
Ecological dynamics
The site which is located in the Till Plains Region developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions and included natural influence of large herding herbivores and occasional fire. Changes occur in the plant communities due to weather fluctuations and management actions. Under adverse impacts, a relatively rapid decline in vegetative vigor and composition can occur. Under favorable conditions, the site has the potential to resemble the Reference State. Interpretations for this site are based primarily on the 1.1 Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass- Plant Community Phase. This community phase and the Reference State have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts also have been considered.
This ecological site (ES) has been grazed by domestic livestock since they have been introduced into the area. The introduction of domestic livestock and the use of fencing and reliable water sources have changed the ecological dynamics of this site. Heavy, continuous grazing (during the typical growing season of May through October) and repeated seasonal grazing (e.g., every spring, every summer) without adequate recovery periods following grazing events cause departure from the 3.1 Green Needlegrass-Little Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass Plant Community Phase. Green needlegrass, little bluestem, and the tall warm-season grasses will decrease while western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) will increase. Eventually, blue grama, quackgrass (Elymus repens), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) may develop into a sod. Extended periods of non-use and/or lack of fire will result in excessive litter and a plant community dominated by cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermus).
Following the state-and-transition diagram are narratives for each of the described states and community phases. These may not represent every possibility, but they are the most prevalent and repeatable states and community phases. The associated plant composition tables have been developed from the best available knowledge at the time of this revision. As more data are collected, some of these community phases and states may be revised or removed, and new ones may be added. The main purpose for including the descriptions here is to capture the current knowledge and experience at the time of this revision.
The following is a diagram that illustrates the common plant community phases that can occur on the site and the transition and community pathways between them. The ecological processes will be discussed in more detail in the plant community descriptions following the diagram.
State and transition model
Figure 9. State-and-Transition Model for the Clayey site in MLRA 102B.
Figure 10. Legend for the Clayey site in MLRA 102B.
Figure 11. Matrix for the Clayey site in MLRA 102B.
More interactive model formats are also available.
View Interactive Models
More interactive model formats are also available.
View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text
Ecosystem states
States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)
States 2 and 6 (additional transitions)
| T1A | - | Heavy continuous grazing |
|---|---|---|
| T1B | - | Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion |
| T1C | - | Conifer invasion, no fire |
| T1D | - | Tillage |
| T2A | - | Tillage |
| T3C | - | Tillage |
| T4A | - | Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning |
| T4C | - | Conifer invasion, no fire |
| T4B | - | Tillage |
| T5A | - | Prescribed burning, brush management |
| T5C | - | Brush management |
| T5E | - | Brush management, tillage |
| T6A | - | Seeding |
| T6B and T6C | - | Cropping followed by abandonment, seeding |
State 1 submodel, plant communities
| 1.1A | - | Heavy continuous grazing |
|---|---|---|
| 1.1B | - | Prescribed burning |
| 1.2A | - | Prescribed grazing, prescribed burning |
| 1.3A | - | Prescribed grazing, prescribed burning |
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
| 3.1A | - | Heavy continuous grazing |
|---|---|---|
| 3.2A | - | Prescribed grazing |
State 4 submodel, plant communities
| 4.1A | - | Heavy continuous grazing |
|---|---|---|
| 4.2A | - | Prescribed grazing |
| 4.3A | - | Time w/wo disturbances |
State 5 submodel, plant communities
| 5.1A | - | Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion |
|---|---|---|
| 5.2A | - | No fire |
State 6 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference State
The Reference State represents the natural range of variability that dominates the dynamics of this ES. This state was co-dominated by cool- and warm-season grasses. Before European settlement, the primary disturbance mechanisms included periodic fire, grazing by large herding ungulates, and fluctuations in the water table. Frequent surface fires (every 3 to 5 years) grazing, and weather events created the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. In some locations, this site likely received relatively heavy grazing pressure. Tall warm-season grasses would have declined and cool-season bunchgrasses and short to mid-statured warm-season grasses would have increased. Today, a similar state, the Native/Invaded State (State 3) can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest.
Community 1.1
Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass
Interpretations are based primarily on the Western Wheatgrass-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase (this is also considered to be Reference). The potential vegetation was about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and five percent shrubs. The community was co-dominated by cool- and warm-season grasses. The major grasses included green needlegrass, big bluestem, western wheatgrass, little bluestem, porcupinegrass, and sideoats grama. Other grass or grass-like species include slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), Indiangrass, tall dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), blue grama, buffalograss (Bouteloua dactyloides), and needleleaf sedge (Carex duriuscula). This plant community was resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high tolerance to drought. This was a sustainable plant community in regards to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (kg/hectare) |
Representative value (kg/hectare) |
High (kg/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grass/Grasslike | 2522 | 3471 | 4366 |
| Forb | 174 | 295 | 460 |
| Shrub/Vine | 106 | 157 | 219 |
| Total | 2802 | 3923 | 5045 |
Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0213, Till Plains, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 20 | 28 | 21 | 10 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
Community 1.2
Western Wheatgrass-Sideoats Grama-Green Needlegrass
This plant community evolved under heavy, continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 75 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included western wheatgrass, sideoats grama, green needlegrass, and blue grama. Grasses of secondary importance included big bluestem, little bluestem, buffalograss, slender wheatgrass, needleleaf sedge, and porcupinegrass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community included goldenrod (Solidago), cudweed sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana), heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), scurfpea (Psoralidium), Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). This plant community had similar plant composition to the 3.2 Western Wheatgrass-Blue Grama-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of non-native invasive cool-season species. When compared to the 1.1 Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass Plant Community Phase, western wheatgrass, sideoats grama, and blue grama increased. Production of tall warm-season grasses and needlegrasses was reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes would have been functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses would have been reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allowed for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species.
Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0212, Till Plains, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant..
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 23 | 34 | 15 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Community 1.3
Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama
This plant community was a result of fire occurring at relatively frequent intervals. This phase could have also resulted from a combination of grazing events immediately following early season fire (i.e., large ungulates attracted to highly nutritious vegetative growth following a fire). These events would have caused a reduction in cool-season grasses and an increase in warm-season grasses. The warm-season grasses were more tolerant of shorter return intervals of fire and would have increased in vigor and production leading to a temporary shift to this phase. Needlegrasses would have decreased most significantly amongst the cool-season grasses. The potential vegetation was about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 15 percent forbs, and five percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses. The major grasses included big bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats grama, Indiangrass, switchgrass, tall dropseed, and prairie dropseed. Other grass or grass-like species included green needlegrass, porcupinegrass, western wheatgrass, blue grama, slender wheatgrass, and needleleaf sedge. This plant community was not resistant to change and would have readily shifted back to the 1.1 Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass Plant Community Phase with a return of more normal fire return intervals.
Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0215, Till Plains, warm-season dominant.. Warm-season dominant..
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 15 | 25 | 30 | 15 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Heavy, continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation shifts this community to the 1.2 Western Wheatgrass-Sideoats Grama-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3
Prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (every 3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels, along with occasional grazing events immediately following early season fire, caused a reduction in cool-season grasses and an increase in warm-season grasses. The warm-season grasses were more tolerant of shorter return intervals of fire and would increase in vigor and production leading to a temporary shift to the 1.3 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
Prescribed grazing, and/or prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (every 3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies, or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1
Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing including periodic rest and/or prescribed burning with late season fire or at infrequent intervals (greater than 5 years) will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass- Plant Community Phase.
State 2
Degraded State
This state is the result of heavy, continuous grazing, and the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by blue grama, buffalograss, and western wheatgrass. The blue gama and buffalograss can form a sod-like layer that effectively blocks introduction of other plants into the system. The western wheatgrass will occur on the outer edges and is intermingled with the blue grama and buffalograss sod areas. Taller warm-season species will decline, and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot restore the degraded state.
Community 2.1
Blue Grama-Buffalograss-Western Wheatgrass
This plant community evolved under heavy, continuous season grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and five percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included blue grama, buffalograss, western wheatgrass, and needleleaf sedge. Grasses of secondary importance included big bluestem, little bluestem, green needlegrass, slender wheatgrass, tall dropseed, and threeawn (Aristida). Forbs commonly found in this plant community included cudweed sagewort, goldenrod, scurfpea, and western yarrow. When compared to the 1.1 Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass Plant Community Phase, tall warm-season grasses were reduced, and the more grazing tolerant species such as blue grama, buffalograss, and sideoats grama were dominant in this plant community. With the exception of western wheatgrass, cool-season grasses decreased significantly. This vegetation state was very resistant to change especially if the disturbance continued and the short-statured species such as blue grama increased. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing. This plant community was less productive than other phases.
Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0214, Till Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 3 | 7 | 17 | 25 | 25 | 15 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
State 3
Native/Invaded State
This state represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. The Native/Invaded State is dominated by cool-and warm-season grasses. It can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Taller warm-season species can decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grasses will occur.
Community 3.1
Green Needlegrass-Little Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass
This plant community phase is similar to the 1.1 Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass Plant Community Phase, but it also contains minor amounts of non-native invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (up to about 10 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and five percent shrubs. This community is co-dominated by cool- and warm-season grasses with warm-season grasses. The major grasses include green needlegrass, little bluestem, western wheatgrass, big bluestem, porcupinegrass and sideoats grama. Other grass or grass-like species include slender wheatgrass, Indiangrass, tall dropseed, prairie dropseed, switchgrass, blue grama, buffalograss, and needleleaf sedge. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high tolerance to drought. This is a sustainable plant community in regards to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0213, Till Plains, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 20 | 28 | 21 | 10 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
Community 3.2
Western Wheatgrass-Blue Grama-Kentucky Bluegrass
This plant community is a result of heavy, continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 75 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include western wheatgrass, blue grama, Kentucky bluegrass, sideoats grama, and green needlegrass. Grasses of secondary importance include big bluestem, little bluestem, bufflaograss, slender wheatgrass, needleleaf sedge, and porcupinegrass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include goldenrod, cudweed sagewort, heath aster, scurfpea, western ragweed, and western yarrow. When compared to the 1.1 Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass Plant Community Phase, western wheatgrass, sideoats grama, and blue grama has increased. Production of tall warm-season grasses and needlegrasses was reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes are functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses are reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allows for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species. The introduction of non-native invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass results in alterations to the soil profile. Organic matter levels tend to decrease and begin to be concentrated more in the surface layers and the structure will begin to be modified. These changes favor the shallow-rooted species and hasten their eventual dominance if steps are not taken to reduce these species.
Figure 18. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 6. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (kg/hectare) |
Representative value (kg/hectare) |
High (kg/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grass/Grasslike | 2264 | 2636 | 2892 |
| Forb | 140 | 314 | 560 |
| Shrub/Vine | 62 | 188 | 359 |
| Total | 2466 | 3138 | 3811 |
Figure 19. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0212, Till Plains, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant..
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 23 | 34 | 15 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2
Heavy, continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods or during periods of below normal precipitation shifts this community to the 3.2 Western Wheatgrass-Blue Grama-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1
Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 3.1 Green Needlegrass-Little Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass Plant Community Phase.
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Grazing |
|---|
State 4
Invaded State
This state is a result of encroachment mainly by invasive introduced cool-season grasses. The ecological processes are not functioning, especially the biotic processes and the hydrologic functions. The introduced cool-season grasses cause reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Preliminary studies indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. The opportunity for high intensity spring burns is severely reduced by early green-up and increased moisture and humidity at the soil surface. Grazing pressure cannot cause a reduction in sod grass dominance. Production is limited to the sod forming species. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases. Energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by root depth of the dominant species.
Community 4.1
Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass
This plant community phase is a result of extended periods of non-use and no fire or occasionally light levels of grazing over several years. It is characterized by dominance of smooth bromegrass and to a lesser extent Kentucky bluegrass. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface, and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short, as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. The dominance of these introduced species has been shown to alter the biotic component of the soil, organic matter levels, and eventually the soil structure. These alterations perpetuate the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass and tend to make establishment of native species extremely difficult.
Figure 20. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 7. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (kg/hectare) |
Representative value (kg/hectare) |
High (kg/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grass/Grasslike | 2572 | 3103 | 3654 |
| Shrub/Vine | 67 | 215 | 415 |
| Forb | 163 | 269 | 415 |
| Total | 2802 | 3587 | 4484 |
Figure 21. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0211, Till Plains, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 4 | 12 | 25 | 36 | 10 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Community 4.2
Kentucky Bluegrass-Blue Grama/Snowberry
This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, blue grama, and snowberry (Symphoricarpos). The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.
Figure 22. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 8. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (kg/hectare) |
Representative value (kg/hectare) |
High (kg/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grass/Grasslike | 1737 | 2260 | 2584 |
| Forb | 118 | 269 | 471 |
| Shrub/Vine | 50 | 161 | 308 |
| Total | 1905 | 2690 | 3363 |
Figure 23. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0211, Till Plains, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 4 | 12 | 25 | 36 | 10 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Community 4.3
Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer
This plant community developed under continuous, heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to five percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable but often include non-native invasive and early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites. This community can be renovated to improve the production capability; however, if management changes are not made, the vegetation could revert back to early seral species.
Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2
Heavy, continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation shifts this community to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Blue Grama/Snowberry Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1
Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 4.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Grazing |
|---|
Pathway 4.3A
Community 4.3 to 4.2
This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Blue Grama Plant/Snowberry Community Phase.
Conservation practices
| Integrated Pest Management (IPM) |
|---|
State 5
Conifer/Invaded State
This state is dominated (canopy exceeds 20 percent of total surface area) by areas where trees have become established or have encroached onto the site due to the absence of periodic fire. This state is dominated by eastern redcedar and/or Rocky Mountain juniper with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The plant community can develop into a closed canopy that impedes the reproductive capability of the major native perennial grass species. A single eastern redcedar tree with a 7 foot crown diameter eliminates the equivalent of 3 pounds of forage. Further, the forage potential of a pasture with 250 mature eastern redcedar trees per acre (or one tree every thirteen feet) is reduce by 50 percent. It is suggested that reducing stocking rates by 10 percent for every 50 trees per acre. The increase in tree canopy which is a result of a disruption of the natural, and human related fire regimes that occurred prior to European settlement, which kept trees from encroaching much of the grasslands.
Community 5.1
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Western Wheatgrass-Sideoats Grama
This plant community evolved due to the invasion of conifers, such as eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. This phase was a result of the absence of periodic fire. These events may cause a reduction in warm-season grasses and an increase in cool-season grasses and allow for the encroachment of conifers. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 50 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 30 percent trees. Dominant grasses and grass-likes include western wheatgrass, green needlegrass, sideoats grama, buffalograss, big bluestem, and blue grama. As the canopy increases, warm-season grasses tend to decrease as the cool-season grasses increase. Forbs will be diverse. Trees species will include eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. When compared to the 1.1 Green Needlegrass-Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass Plant Community, coniferous trees have increased significantly and herbaceous component has decreased. This plant community is susceptible to the encroachment of eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper.
Community 5.2
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass
This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing or non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years). When compared to the 5.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Western Wheatgrass-Sideoats Grama Plant Community, the amount of non-native invasive cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass have increased significantly. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, and blue grama. The dominance of Kentucky bluegrass is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Production is limited to the sod forming species. The period that palatability is high is relatively short, as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases, energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by root depth of the dominate species. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.
Community 5.3
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper
This plant community phase is a result of no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years). Coniferous trees have increased significantly, and the herbaceous component has decreased. With the dominance of the coniferous trees such as eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper, the canopy covers the area and grass species are unable to survive. Grass production for livestock is severely limited. Prescribed burning before the juniper species reach maturity and are still susceptible to fire ( five feet in height), or mechanical brush management can be used to maintain or recover 5.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2
Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density), heavy continuous grazing, or invasion of non-native plant species will shift this plant community to the 5.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.3
No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density) will shift this plant community to the 5.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase.
State 6
Crop Production State
This state is characterized by the production of annual crops using a variety of tillage and cropping systems along with management practices. Cropping on this site is enabled during years with drier than normal precipitation or with artificial drainage (surface or subsurface).
Community 6.1
Annual Crops
This plant community developed with the use of a variety of tillage and cropping systems for the production of annual crops including corn, soybeans, wheat, and a variety of other crops.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), typically beginning early in the season) will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Blue Grama-Buffalograss-Western Wheatgrass Plant Community Phase within the Short Grass Sod State (State 2).
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3
Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and/or heavy continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Transition T1C
State 1 to 5
No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and invasion of conifer will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Eastern Red Cedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Western Wheatgrass-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5).
Transition T1D
State 1 to 6
Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Transition T5
State 2 to 4
Encroachment of non-native invasive/noxious species, abandonment of cropping, or seeding of introduced and/or native improved varieties of forage species may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4) and more specifically to the 4.3 Annual/Pioneer, Non-native Perennial Plant Community Phase. In the case of a seeding, refer to the corresponding Forage Suitability Group (FSG) description for adapted species and expected production (production estimates in the FSG description may be unrealistically high due to the degraded condition of the site at this phase).
Transition T2A
State 2 to 6
Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Transition T3A and T3B
State 3 to 4
Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4). Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass/Snowberry Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling
Transition T3C
State 3 to 6
Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Restoration pathway T4A
State 4 to 3
Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Grazing |
|---|
Transition T4C
State 4 to 5
No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and invasion of conifer will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 5.2 Eastern Red Cedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5).
Transition T4B
State 4 to 6
Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Restoration pathway T5A
State 5 to 1
Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 5.1 Eastern Red Cedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Western Wheatgrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Reference State (State 1).
Restoration pathway T5B and T5D
State 5 to 3
Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 5.2 Eastern Red Cedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3). Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 5.3 Eastern Red Cedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Restoration pathway T5C
State 5 to 4
Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers may lead this 5.2 Eastern Red Cedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4).
Transition T5E
State 5 to 6
Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Restoration pathway T6A
State 6 to 3
Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 6) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Restoration pathway T6B and T6C
State 6 to 4
Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 6) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4) Cropping followed by abandonment may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4) and more specifically to the 4.3 Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer Plant Community Phase.
Additional community tables
Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (kg/hectare) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Cool-season Bunchgrasses | 588–1177 | ||||
| green needlegrass | NAVI4 | Nassella viridula | 392–1177 | – | ||
| porcupinegrass | HESP11 | Hesperostipa spartea | 196–588 | – | ||
| Canada wildrye | ELCA4 | Elymus canadensis | 0–118 | – | ||
| 2 | Tall Warm-season Grasses | 392–1177 | ||||
| big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | 275–1177 | – | ||
| switchgrass | PAVI2 | Panicum virgatum | 0–196 | – | ||
| Indiangrass | SONU2 | Sorghastrum nutans | 39–196 | – | ||
| composite dropseed | SPCOC2 | Sporobolus compositus var. compositus | 39–196 | – | ||
| 3 | Mid Warm-season Grasses | 392–981 | ||||
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 196–785 | – | ||
| sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 196–588 | – | ||
| prairie dropseed | SPHE | Sporobolus heterolepis | 39–196 | – | ||
| 4 | Wheatgrass | 314–588 | ||||
| western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 196–588 | – | ||
| slender wheatgrass | ELTR7 | Elymus trachycaulus | 78–392 | – | ||
| 5 | Short Warm-season Grasses | 78–196 | ||||
| buffalograss | BODA2 | Bouteloua dactyloides | 39–196 | – | ||
| blue grama | BOGR2 | Bouteloua gracilis | 39–196 | – | ||
| threeawn | ARIST | Aristida | 0–78 | – | ||
| 6 | Other Native Grasses | 78–196 | ||||
| Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 2GRAM | Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 0–157 | – | ||
| prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 39–118 | – | ||
| Scribner's rosette grass | DIOLS | Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum | 39–78 | – | ||
| 7 | Grass-likes | 39–196 | ||||
| needleleaf sedge | CADU6 | Carex duriuscula | 39–196 | – | ||
| Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–118 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 8 | Forbs | 196–392 | ||||
| Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 39–118 | – | ||
| western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 39–78 | – | ||
| Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 39–78 | – | ||
| white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 39–78 | – | ||
| false boneset | BREU | Brickellia eupatorioides | 0–78 | – | ||
| wavyleaf thistle | CIUN | Cirsium undulatum | 0–78 | – | ||
| purple prairie clover | DAPU5 | Dalea purpurea | 0–78 | – | ||
| blacksamson echinacea | ECAN2 | Echinacea angustifolia | 39–78 | – | ||
| stiff sunflower | HEPA19 | Helianthus pauciflorus | 39–78 | – | ||
| blazing star | LIATR | Liatris | 39–78 | – | ||
| Northern Idaho biscuitroot | LOOR | Lomatium orientale | 39–78 | – | ||
| American bird's-foot trefoil | LOUNU | Lotus unifoliolatus var. unifoliolatus | 39–78 | – | ||
| silverleaf Indian breadroot | PEAR6 | Pediomelum argophyllum | 39–78 | – | ||
| beardtongue | PENST | Penstemon | 0–78 | – | ||
| upright prairie coneflower | RACO3 | Ratibida columnifera | 39–78 | – | ||
| goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 39–78 | – | ||
| white heath aster | SYER | Symphyotrichum ericoides | 39–78 | – | ||
| hoary verbena | VEST | Verbena stricta | 0–78 | – | ||
| American vetch | VIAM | Vicia americana | 39–78 | – | ||
| rush skeletonplant | LYJU | Lygodesmia juncea | 0–39 | – | ||
| wild bergamot | MOFI | Monarda fistulosa | 0–39 | – | ||
| purple locoweed | OXLA3 | Oxytropis lambertii | 0–39 | – | ||
| sanddune wallflower | ERCAC | Erysimum capitatum var. capitatum | 0–39 | – | ||
| scarlet beeblossom | GACO5 | Gaura coccinea | 0–39 | – | ||
| candle anemone | ANCY | Anemone cylindrica | 0–39 | – | ||
| pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | 0–39 | – | ||
| onion | ALLIU | Allium | 0–39 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 9 | Shrubs | 118–196 | ||||
| leadplant | AMCA6 | Amorpha canescens | 39–118 | – | ||
| Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–78 | – | ||
| rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 39–78 | – | ||
| snowberry | SYMPH | Symphoricarpos | 39–78 | – | ||
| prairie sagewort | ARFR4 | Artemisia frigida | 0–39 | – | ||
Table 10. Community 3.2 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (kg/hectare) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Cool-season Bunchgrasses | 31–314 | ||||
| green needlegrass | NAVI4 | Nassella viridula | 31–314 | – | ||
| porcupinegrass | HESP11 | Hesperostipa spartea | 0–157 | – | ||
| 2 | Tall Warm-season Grasses | 0–251 | ||||
| big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | 0–251 | – | ||
| composite dropseed | SPCOC2 | Sporobolus compositus var. compositus | 0–94 | – | ||
| 3 | Mid Warm-season Grasses | 31–471 | ||||
| sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 31–471 | – | ||
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 0–251 | – | ||
| 4 | Wheatgrass | 157–785 | ||||
| western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 157–785 | – | ||
| slender wheatgrass | ELTR7 | Elymus trachycaulus | 0–220 | – | ||
| 5 | Short Warm-season Grasses | 157–471 | ||||
| blue grama | BOGR2 | Bouteloua gracilis | 63–377 | – | ||
| buffalograss | BODA2 | Bouteloua dactyloides | 31–251 | – | ||
| threeawn | ARIST | Aristida | 0–94 | – | ||
| 6 | Other Native Grasses | 63–157 | ||||
| Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 2GRAM | Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 0–157 | – | ||
| Scribner's rosette grass | DIOLS | Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum | 31–63 | – | ||
| prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 31–63 | – | ||
| 7 | Grass-likes | 31–220 | ||||
| needleleaf sedge | CADU6 | Carex duriuscula | 31–220 | – | ||
| Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–126 | – | ||
| 8 | Non-Native Grasses | 157–471 | ||||
| Kentucky bluegrass | POPR | Poa pratensis | 94–471 | – | ||
| smooth brome | BRIN2 | Bromus inermis | 0–251 | – | ||
| quackgrass | ELRE4 | Elymus repens | 0–157 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 9 | Forbs | 157–471 | ||||
| goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 31–126 | – | ||
| white heath aster | SYER | Symphyotrichum ericoides | 31–94 | – | ||
| white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 31–94 | – | ||
| Forb, introduced | 2FI | Forb, introduced | 31–94 | – | ||
| Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 31–94 | – | ||
| western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 31–94 | – | ||
| Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 31–94 | – | ||
| silverleaf Indian breadroot | PEAR6 | Pediomelum argophyllum | 31–94 | – | ||
| wavyleaf thistle | CIUN | Cirsium undulatum | 0–63 | – | ||
| hoary verbena | VEST | Verbena stricta | 0–63 | – | ||
| American vetch | VIAM | Vicia americana | 0–31 | – | ||
| purple prairie clover | DAPU5 | Dalea purpurea | 0–31 | – | ||
| blacksamson echinacea | ECAN2 | Echinacea angustifolia | 0–31 | – | ||
| blazing star | LIATR | Liatris | 0–31 | – | ||
| Northern Idaho biscuitroot | LOOR | Lomatium orientale | 0–31 | – | ||
| American bird's-foot trefoil | LOUNU | Lotus unifoliolatus var. unifoliolatus | 0–31 | – | ||
| rush skeletonplant | LYJU | Lygodesmia juncea | 0–31 | – | ||
| purple locoweed | OXLA3 | Oxytropis lambertii | 0–31 | – | ||
| upright prairie coneflower | RACO3 | Ratibida columnifera | 0–31 | – | ||
| pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | 0–31 | – | ||
| onion | ALLIU | Allium | 0–31 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 10 | Shrubs | 63–314 | ||||
| snowberry | SYMPH | Symphoricarpos | 31–251 | – | ||
| prairie sagewort | ARFR4 | Artemisia frigida | 0–94 | – | ||
| rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 31–63 | – | ||
| Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–63 | – | ||
| leadplant | AMCA6 | Amorpha canescens | 0–31 | – | ||
Table 11. Community 4.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (kg/hectare) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Cool-season Bunchgrasses | 0–251 | ||||
| green needlegrass | NAVI4 | Nassella viridula | 0–251 | – | ||
| Canada wildrye | ELCA4 | Elymus canadensis | 0–72 | – | ||
| 2 | Tall Warm-season Grasses | 0–108 | ||||
| composite dropseed | SPCOC2 | Sporobolus compositus var. compositus | 0–108 | – | ||
| 3 | Mid Warm-season Grasses | 0–179 | ||||
| sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 0–143 | – | ||
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 0–72 | – | ||
| 4 | Wheatgrass | 0–179 | ||||
| slender wheatgrass | ELTR7 | Elymus trachycaulus | 0–179 | – | ||
| western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 0–179 | – | ||
| 5 | Short Warm-season Grasses | 0–108 | ||||
| threeawn | ARIST | Aristida | 0–108 | – | ||
| blue grama | BOGR2 | Bouteloua gracilis | 0–108 | – | ||
| buffalograss | BODA2 | Bouteloua dactyloides | 0–72 | – | ||
| 6 | Other Native Grasses | 0–179 | ||||
| Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 2GRAM | Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 0–179 | – | ||
| Scribner's rosette grass | DIOLS | Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum | 0–36 | – | ||
| prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 0–36 | – | ||
| 7 | Grass-likes | 36–251 | ||||
| needleleaf sedge | CADU6 | Carex duriuscula | 36–251 | – | ||
| Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–108 | – | ||
| 8 | Non-Native Grasses | 1255–2511 | ||||
| smooth brome | BRIN2 | Bromus inermis | 359–2152 | – | ||
| Kentucky bluegrass | POPR | Poa pratensis | 359–2152 | – | ||
| quackgrass | ELRE4 | Elymus repens | 0–179 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 9 | Forbs | 179–359 | ||||
| goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 36–108 | – | ||
| white heath aster | SYER | Symphyotrichum ericoides | 36–108 | – | ||
| Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 36–108 | – | ||
| white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 36–108 | – | ||
| Forb, introduced | 2FI | Forb, introduced | 36–108 | – | ||
| silverleaf Indian breadroot | PEAR6 | Pediomelum argophyllum | 36–108 | – | ||
| Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 0–72 | – | ||
| western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 36–72 | – | ||
| hoary verbena | VEST | Verbena stricta | 0–72 | – | ||
| upright prairie coneflower | RACO3 | Ratibida columnifera | 0–36 | – | ||
| wavyleaf thistle | CIUN | Cirsium undulatum | 0–36 | – | ||
| purple prairie clover | DAPU5 | Dalea purpurea | 0–36 | – | ||
| blazing star | LIATR | Liatris | 0–36 | – | ||
| Northern Idaho biscuitroot | LOOR | Lomatium orientale | 0–36 | – | ||
| rush skeletonplant | LYJU | Lygodesmia juncea | 0–36 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 10 | Shrubs | 72–359 | ||||
| snowberry | SYMPH | Symphoricarpos | 72–359 | – | ||
| Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–72 | – | ||
| rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 0–72 | – | ||
| prairie sagewort | ARFR4 | Artemisia frigida | 0–36 | – | ||
Table 12. Community 4.2 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (kg/hectare) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Cool-season Bunchgrasses | 0–54 | ||||
| green needlegrass | NAVI4 | Nassella viridula | 0–54 | – | ||
| 2 | Mid Warm-season Grasses | 0–161 | ||||
| sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 0–135 | – | ||
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 0–54 | – | ||
| 3 | Wheatgrass | 0–108 | ||||
| western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 0–108 | – | ||
| 4 | Short Warm-season Grasses | 0–215 | ||||
| buffalograss | BODA2 | Bouteloua dactyloides | 0–188 | – | ||
| blue grama | BOGR2 | Bouteloua gracilis | 0–188 | – | ||
| threeawn | ARIST | Aristida | 0–135 | – | ||
| 5 | Other Native Grasses | 0–135 | ||||
| Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 2GRAM | Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 0–135 | – | ||
| Scribner's rosette grass | DIOLS | Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum | 0–27 | – | ||
| 6 | Grass-likes | 54–404 | ||||
| needleleaf sedge | CADU6 | Carex duriuscula | 54–404 | – | ||
| Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–135 | – | ||
| 7 | Non-Native Grasses | 807–1614 | ||||
| Kentucky bluegrass | POPR | Poa pratensis | 269–1614 | – | ||
| smooth brome | BRIN2 | Bromus inermis | 0–269 | – | ||
| quackgrass | ELRE4 | Elymus repens | 0–269 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 8 | Forbs | 135–404 | ||||
| Forb, introduced | 2FI | Forb, introduced | 27–135 | – | ||
| Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 27–135 | – | ||
| white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 27–135 | – | ||
| goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 27–135 | – | ||
| western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 27–108 | – | ||
| white heath aster | SYER | Symphyotrichum ericoides | 27–81 | – | ||
| silverleaf Indian breadroot | PEAR6 | Pediomelum argophyllum | 27–81 | – | ||
| hoary verbena | VEST | Verbena stricta | 0–54 | – | ||
| pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | 0–27 | – | ||
| Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 0–27 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 9 | Shrubs | 54–269 | ||||
| snowberry | SYMPH | Symphoricarpos | 54–269 | – | ||
| Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–54 | – | ||
| prairie sagewort | ARFR4 | Artemisia frigida | 0–54 | – | ||
| rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 0–27 | – | ||
Interpretations
Animal community
The following table lists annual, suggested initial stocking rates with average growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ES description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. More accurate carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity. Stocking rates are calculated using Animal-Unit-Month (AUM), which is the amount of air-dry forage required to feed a cow, with or without calf, for one month.
Green Needlegrass/Bluestem/Wheatgrass (1.1 & 3.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 3,500
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.96
Wheatgrass/Grama/Kentucky Bluegrass (3.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2,800
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.77
Smooth Bromegrass/Kentucky Bluegrass (4.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 3,200
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.88
Bluegrass/Bromegrass/Snowberry (4.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2,400
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.66
Annual/Pioneer, Non-Native Perennial (4.3)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 1,000
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.27
*Based on 912 lbs./acre (air-dry weight) per Animal Unit Month (AUM), and on 25 percent harvest efficiency (refer to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), National Range and Pasture Handbook).
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland, in this area, may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements and added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.
Hydrological functions
Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group D, with some soils in hydrologic group C. Infiltration and runoff potential for this site varies from moderate to high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by blue grama, bluegrass, or smooth bromegrass will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).
Recreational uses
This site provides hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching and other opportunities. The wide variety of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wood products
No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.
Other products
Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.
Other information
Ecological Site Correlation Issues and Questions:
• SD087 McCook County, SD did not use the (EbB) Egan-Beadle, 2 to 6 percent slopes (national symbol fzd3) as used in the adjoining SD079 Lake County, SD.
• SD097 Miner County, SD did not use the (EbB) Egan-Beadle, 2 to 6 percent slopes (national symbol fzd3) as used in the adjoining SD079 Lake County, SD.
• Reference and alternative states within the state and transition model are may not be fully documented and may require additional field sampling for refinement
Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; and Bruce Kunze, Soil Scientist, NRCS.
Data Source Sample Period State County
None
Other references
Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C. Carpenter, and W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: sections and subsections of the coterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. Washington, DC.
Gilbert, M.C., Whited, P.M., Clairain Jr, E.J., & Smith, R.D. 2006. A Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Prairie Potholes. Washington, DC.
Samson, F.B., & Knopf, F.L. 1996. Prairie Conservation Preserving North America's Most Endangered Ecosystem. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. Accessed March 2018.
United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook, Revision 1. Grazing Lands Technology Institute. 214.
United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296.
USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, accessed 27 March 2018). National Plant Data Team.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. 2013. Level III and Level IV Ecoregions of the Continental United States. Corvallis, OR, U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, map scale 1:3,000,000. Available at http://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- continental-united-states. (Accessed 1 March 2018).
High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE. http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/
USDA, NRCS. National Water and Climate Center, Portland, OR. http://wcc.nrcs.usda.gov
USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, Fort Collins, CO. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov
Contributors
Megan Baxter
Stan Boltz
Approval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 2/01/2024
Acknowledgments
Contact for Lead Authors: Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS), Redfield Soil Survey Office, Redfield, SD & Stanton Soil Survey Office, Stanton, NE; Lance Howe (Lance.Howe@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; Steve Winter (Steven.Winter@usda.gov), Soil Scientist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; and Greg Clark (Greg.Clark@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Stanton, NE.
Additional Information Acknowledgment: Jason Hermann (Jason.Hermann@usda.gov), Area Rangeland Management Specialist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD.
This Provisional Ecological Site concept has passed both Quality Control and Quality Assurance processes. It was officially approved for publication by David Kraft as of 11/12/2020.
Non-discrimination Statement
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To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, available online and at any USDA office, or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632- 9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2) fax: (202) 690-7442; or (3) email: program.intake@usda.gov.
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
| Author(s)/participant(s) | David Schmidt, Tim Nordquist, Stan Boltz |
|---|---|
| Contact for lead author | |
| Date | 12/07/2004 |
| Approved by | Suzanne Mayne-Kinney |
| Approval date | |
| Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
-
Number and extent of rills:
Rills should not be present. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
Barely observable. -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Essentially, non-existent. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground less than 5% and less than 2 inches in diameter. -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Active gullies should not be present. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Little to no plant litter movement. Plant litter remains in place and is not moved by erosional forces. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Stability class usually 6. Typically high root content, organic matter, and granular structure. Soil surface is very resistant to erosion. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Use soil series description for depth and color of A-horizon. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Healthy, deep rooted native grasses enhance infiltration and reduce runoff. -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
No compaction layer should be evident. Somewhat restrictive layers of clayey texture can occur at depths of less than 14 inches. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Mid and tall cool-season bunchgrasses = tall warm-season grasses >Sub-dominant:
Mid warm-season grasses > mid cool-season rhizomatous grasses >Other:
Forbs > short warm-season grasses = short grass-like species = shrubs > short cool-season grassesAdditional:
Due to differing root structure and distribution, Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass do not fit into reference plant community F/S groups. -
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little to no evidence of decadence or mortality. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
70-80%, roughly 0.5 inch thick or less. Litter cover is in contact with soil surface. -
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Production ranges from 2,500-4,500 lbs./acre (air-dry weight). Reference value production is 3,500 lbs./acre (air-dry weight). -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Refer to State and Local Noxious Weed List, also Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All species are capable of reproducing.
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The Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.
Click on box and path labels to scroll to the respective text.
Ecosystem states
States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)
States 2 and 6 (additional transitions)
| T1A | - | Heavy continuous grazing |
|---|---|---|
| T1B | - | Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion |
| T1C | - | Conifer invasion, no fire |
| T1D | - | Tillage |
| T2A | - | Tillage |
| T3C | - | Tillage |
| T4A | - | Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning |
| T4C | - | Conifer invasion, no fire |
| T4B | - | Tillage |
| T5A | - | Prescribed burning, brush management |
| T5C | - | Brush management |
| T5E | - | Brush management, tillage |
| T6A | - | Seeding |
| T6B and T6C | - | Cropping followed by abandonment, seeding |
State 1 submodel, plant communities
| 1.1A | - | Heavy continuous grazing |
|---|---|---|
| 1.1B | - | Prescribed burning |
| 1.2A | - | Prescribed grazing, prescribed burning |
| 1.3A | - | Prescribed grazing, prescribed burning |
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
| 3.1A | - | Heavy continuous grazing |
|---|---|---|
| 3.2A | - | Prescribed grazing |
State 4 submodel, plant communities
| 4.1A | - | Heavy continuous grazing |
|---|---|---|
| 4.2A | - | Prescribed grazing |
| 4.3A | - | Time w/wo disturbances |
State 5 submodel, plant communities
| 5.1A | - | Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion |
|---|---|---|
| 5.2A | - | No fire |