Ecological site R102DY009SD

3. Native/Invaded State

4. Invaded State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)

1.1. Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass

T1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
T1B	-	Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion
T1C	-	Tillage
T2A	-	Non-use, invasive incroachment
T2B	-	Tillage
T3A	-	Non-use, no fire, heavy continuous grazing
T3C	-	Tillage
R4	-	Long-term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning
T4	-	Tillage
R5A	-	Seeding
R5B	-	Seeding, abandonment of cropping

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.2. Little Bluestem-Needleandthread-Threadleaf Sedge

1.3. Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass

1.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
1.1B	-	Prescribed burning
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning
1.3A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Threadleaf Sedge-Scribner Panicum-Blue Grama Sod

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass

3.2. Little Bluestem-Needleandthread-Kentucky Bluegrass

3.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
3.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Smooth Brome-Kentucky Bluegrass

4.2. Kentucky Bluegrass-Threadleaf Sedge

4.3. Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

4.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
4.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods
4.3A	-	Time without disturbances

State 5 submodel, plant communities

5.1. Annual Crops

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State represents the natural range of variability that dominates the dynamics of this ecological site (ES). This state was dominated by warm-season grasses with cool-season grasses being subdominant. Before European settlement, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included periodic fire, grazing by large herding ungulates, and fluctuations in the water table and ponding frequency and duration. Frequent surface fires (3 to 5 years) and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Cool-season and taller warm-season grasses would have declined and a corresponding increase in short, warm-season grasses would have occurred. Today, a similar state can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest.

Dominant plant species

leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
snowberry (Symphoricarpos), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), grass
field sagewort (Artemisia campestris), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
stiff sunflower (Helianthus pauciflorus), other herbaceous

Community 1.1
Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass

Interpretations are based primarily on the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass Plant Community Phase (this is also considered to be climax). The potential vegetation was about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses subdominant. The major grasses included big bluestem, needleandthread, switchgrass, sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), prairie sandreed (Calamovifa longifolia), little bluestem, and porcupine grass. Other grass or grass-like species included sideoats grama, blue grama, threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), and Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans). This plant community was resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high drought tolerance. This was a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 7. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	2190	2936	3630
Forb	145	248	385
Shrub/Vine	65	116	185
Total	2400	3300	4200

Figure 8. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 1.2
Little Bluestem-Needleandthread-Threadleaf Sedge

This plant community evolved under heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included little bluestem, needleandthread, threadleaf sedge, prairie sandreed, and blue grama. Grasses of secondary importance included sideoats grama, porcupine grass, big bluestem, and sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus). Forbs commonly found in this plant community included cudweed sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana), prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera), and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). This plant community had similar plant composition to the 3.2 Little Bluestem-Needleandthread-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass. When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass Plant Community Phase, needleandthread, threadleaf sedge, and blue grama increased. Big bluestem and porcupine grass decreased and production of mid and tall warm-season grasses was also reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term.

Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0203, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	20	28	21	10	5	3	0	0

Community 1.3
Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass

This plant community was a result of fire occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years). This phase could have also resulted from a combination of grazing events immediately following early season fire (i.e., large ungulates attracted to highly nutritious vegetative growth following a fire). These events would have caused a reduction in cool-season grasses and an increase in warm-season grasses. The warm-season grasses were more tolerant of shorter return intervals of fire and would have increased in vigor and production leading to a temporary shift to this phase. Needlegrasses would have decreased most significantly amongst the cool-season grasses. The potential vegetation was about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses. The major grasses included big bluestem, little bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, prairie sandreed, and sideoats grama. Other grass or grass-like species included porcupine grass, needleandthread, blue grama, and threadleaf sedge. This plant community was not resistant to change and would have readily shifted back to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass Plant Community Phase with a return of more normal fire return intervals.

Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0205, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant.. Warm-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	2	5	15	25	30	15	7	1	0	0

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 1.2 Little Bluestem-Needleandthread-Threadleaf Sedge Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Prescribed Burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years), and occasional grazing events immediately following early season fire caused a reduction in cool-season grasses and an increase in warm-season grasses. The warm-season grasses were more tolerant of shorter return intervals of fire, which would increase in vigor and production leading to a temporary shift to the 1.3 Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing, and/or prescribed burning returned to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest and/or prescribed burning with late season fire or at infrequent intervals (greater than 5 years) will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass Plant Community Phase.

State 2
Shortgrass Sod State

This state is the result of heavy continuous grazing, and in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by blue grama and buffalograss forming a dense sod layer that effectively blocks introduction of other plants into the system. Taller cool-season species will decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot cause a reduction in the sod grass dominance.

Dominant plant species

threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), grass
Scribner's rosette grass (Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
field sagewort (Artemisia campestris), other herbaceous
western yarrow (Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis), other herbaceous

Community 2.1
Threadleaf Sedge-Scribner Panicum-Blue Grama Sod

This plant community evolved under heavy continuous season grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses typically included threadleaf sedge, Scribner’s panicum, and blue grama. Grasses of secondary importance included little bluestem and needleandthread. Forbs commonly found in this plant community included cudweed sagewort, green sagewort (Artemisia campestris), and western yarrow. This vegetation state was very resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing. This plant community was less productive than other phases. The thick sod prevented other species from getting established due to decreased infiltration and increased runoff.

Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0203, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	20	28	21	10	5	3	0	0

State 3
Native/Invaded State

This state represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by cool- and warm-season grasses. It can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Taller cool-season species can decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur.

Dominant plant species

prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida), shrub
snowberry (Symphoricarpos), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
field sagewort (Artemisia campestris), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), other herbaceous

Community 3.1
Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass

This plant community phase is similar to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass Plant Community Phase, but it also contains minor amounts of non-native invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (up to about 15 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community is dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses subdominant. The major grasses include big bluestem, needleandthread, switchgrass, porcupine grass, little bluestem, and prairie sandreed. Other grass or grass-like species include sideoats grama, blue grama, threadleaf sedge, Indiangrass, prairie dropseed, and Kentucky bluegrass. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 3.2
Little Bluestem-Needleandthread-Kentucky Bluegrass

This plant community is a result of heavy continuous grazing, continuous season-long grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include little bluestem, needleandthread, prairie sandreed, threadleaf sedge, blue grama and Kentucky bluegrass. Grasses of secondary importance include sideoats grama, porcupine grass, and sand dropseed. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include cudweed sagewort, prairie coneflower, and western yarrow. When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass Plant Community Phase, threadleaf sedge, needleandthread, and blue grama have increased. Big bluestem, switchgrass, and porcupine grass have decreased, and production of mid- and tall warm-season grasses has also been reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term.

Figure 13. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1550	2076	2550
Forb	105	240	420
Shrub/Vine	45	84	130
Total	1700	2400	3100

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0203, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	20	28	21	10	5	3	0	0

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 3.2 Little Bluestem-Needleandthread-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 3.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Switchgrass Plant Community Phase.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

State 4
Invaded State

This state is the result of invasion and dominance of introduced species. This state is characterized by the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass, and an increasing thatch layer that effectively blocks introduction of other plants into the system. Plant litter accumulation tends to favor the more shade tolerant introduced grass species. The nutrient cycle is also impaired and the result is typically a higher level of nitrogen which also favors the introduced species. Increasing plant litter decreases the amount of sunlight reaching plant crowns thereby shifting competitive advantage to shade tolerant introduced grass species. Studies indicate that soil biological activity is altered and this shift apparently exploits the soil microclimate and encourages growth of the introduced grass species. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot cause a reduction in the invasive grass dominance. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. Once the state is well established, even drastic events such as high intensity fires driven by high fuel loads of litter and thatch will not result in more than a very short term reduction of Kentucky bluegrass. These events may reduce the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, but due to the large amount of rhizomes in the soil, there is no opportunity for the native species to establish and dominate before Kentucky bluegrass rebounds and again dominates the system.

Dominant plant species

snowberry (Symphoricarpos), shrub
prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass
ragweed (Ambrosia), other herbaceous
field sagewort (Artemisia campestris), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), other herbaceous
leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula), other herbaceous

Community 4.1
Smooth Brome-Kentucky Bluegrass

This plant community phase is a result of extended periods of nonuse and no fire. It is characterized by a dominance of smooth bromegrass and Kentucky bluegrass. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short, as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced.

Figure 15. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	2010	2670	3290
Forb	135	225	345
Shrub/Vine	55	105	165
Total	2200	3000	3800

Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0201, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

Community 4.2
Kentucky Bluegrass-Threadleaf Sedge

This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, threadleaf sedge, and blue grama. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.

Figure 17. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	995	1653	2270
Forb	90	190	330
Shrub/Vine	15	57	100
Total	1100	1900	2700

Figure 18. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0201, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

Community 4.3
Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

This plant community developed under continuous heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances (e.g., heavy use areas, defoliation by rodents, etc.). The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable but often include nonnative invasive and/or early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites.

Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Threadleaf Sedge Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 4.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 4.3A
Community 4.3 to 4.2

This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Threadleaf Sedge Plant Community Phase.

State 5
Crop Production State

This state is characterized by the production of annual crops using a variety of tillage and cropping systems along with management practices. Cropping on this site is enabled during years with drier than normal precipitation or with artificial drainage (surface or subsurface).

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea), grass
wheat (Triticum), grass
soybean (Glycine), other herbaceous

Community 5.1
Annual Crops

This plant community developed with the use of a variety of tillage systems and cropping systems for the production of annual crops including corn, soybeans, wheat, sugar beet and a variety of other crops.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season, and often at the same time of year each year, typically beginning early in the season) will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Threadleaf Sedge-Scribner Panicum-Blue Grama Sod Plant Community Phase within the Shortgrass Sod State.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and/or heavy continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native/Invaded State (State 3).

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Transition T2A
State 2 to 4

Encroachment of non-native invasive/noxious species, abandonment of cropping, or seeding of introduced and/or native improved varieties of forage species may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4) and more specifically to the 4.3 Annual/Pioneer, Non-native Perennial Plant Community Phase. In the case of a seeding, refer to the corresponding Forage Suitability Group (FSG) description for adapted species and expected production (production estimates in the FSG description may be unrealistically high due to the degraded condition of the site at this phase).

Transition T2B
State 2 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4). Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Threadleaf Sedge Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling.

Transition T3C
State 3 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Restoration pathway R4
State 4 to 3

Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) coupled with prescribed burning may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Transition T4
State 4 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 3

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 5) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 4

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 5) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4). Cropping followed by abandonment may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4) and more specifically to the 4.3 Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer Plant Community Phase.

Additional community tables

Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			660–1815
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	330–1155	–
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	0–660	–
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	99–495	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	165–495	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	33–330	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			330–660
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	165–660	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	0–165	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	33–165	–
3	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			165–495
4	Short Warm-season Grasses			66–165
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	33–165	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–99	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	33–66	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–33	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–33	–
5	Other Native Grasses			33–165
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–165	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–99	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–99	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	33–99	–
6	Grass-likes			33–165
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–165	–
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	33–165	–
Forb
7	Forbs			165–330
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	33–132	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–66	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	33–66	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	33–66	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	33–66	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	33–66	–
	Nuttall's sensitive-briar	MINU6	Mimosa nuttallii	33–66	–
	western marbleseed	ONBEO	Onosmodium bejariense var. occidentale	0–66	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	33–66	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	33–66	–
	blackeyed Susan	RUHI2	Rudbeckia hirta	0–66	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	33–66	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	33–66	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	33–66	–
	purple locoweed	OXLA3	Oxytropis lambertii	0–33	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	0–33	–
	ticktrefoil	DESMO	Desmodium	0–33	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	0–33	–
	prairie fleabane	ERST3	Erigeron strigosus	0–33	–
	sand milkweed	ASAR	Asclepias arenaria	0–33	–
	milkvetch	ASTRA	Astragalus	0–33	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–33	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–33	–
	ragweed	AMBRO	Ambrosia	0–33	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			66–165
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	33–132	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–99	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–66	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	33–66	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–66	–

Table 10. Community 3.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			48–360
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–240	–
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	0–192	–
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	0–72	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–48	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			120–600
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	120–600	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–48	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	0–24	–
3	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			120–480
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	120–480	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–120	–
4	Short Warm-season Grasses			72–240
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	48–240	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–120	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	24–96	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–96	–
5	Other Native Grasses			24–120
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–120	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–96	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–96	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	24–48	–
6	Grass-likes			48–240
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	48–192	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–120	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			120–360
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	120–360	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–144	–
Forb
8	Forbs			120–360
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	24–120	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	24–96	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	24–96	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	24–96	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	24–96	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–72	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	24–72	–
	ragweed	AMBRO	Ambrosia	24–72	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	24–48	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–24	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	0–24	–
	milkvetch	ASTRA	Astragalus	0–24	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–24	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–24	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	0–24	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	0–24	–
	Nuttall's sensitive-briar	MINU6	Mimosa nuttallii	0–24	–
	western marbleseed	ONBEO	Onosmodium bejariense var. occidentale	0–24	–
	purple locoweed	OXLA3	Oxytropis lambertii	0–24	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			48–120
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	24–96	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–72	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	24–48	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–48	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–24	–

Table 11. Community 4.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Mid Warm-season Grasses			0–150
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–150	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–30	–
2	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			0–300
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–300	–
3	Short Warm-season Grasses			30–150
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	30–150	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–120	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–90	–
4	Other Native Grasses			0–150
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–120	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–60	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–60	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–60	–
5	Grass-likes			0–150
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	0–150	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–90	–
6	Non-Native Grasses			900–2250
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	300–1800	–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	300–1500	–
Forb
7	Forbs			150–300
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	30–180	–
	ragweed	AMBRO	Ambrosia	30–120	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–90	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	30–90	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	30–90	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	30–90	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–60	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–60	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	0–60	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–30	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			60–150
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	30–150	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–60	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–60	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	30–60	–

Table 12. Community 4.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Mid Warm-season Grasses			0–57
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–57	–
2	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			0–95
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–95	–
3	Short Warm-season Grasses			95–285
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	38–285	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–95	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	19–95	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–57	–
4	Other Native Grasses			38–133
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	19–133	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–133	–
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–95	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–19	–
5	Grass-likes			95–380
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	95–380	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–152	–
6	Non-Native Grasses			380–950
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	285–950	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–152	–
Forb
7	Forbs			95–285
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	19–152	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	19–133	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	19–95	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	19–95	–
	ragweed	AMBRO	Ambrosia	19–95	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	19–57	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	19–57	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–38	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	0–19	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			19–95
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	19–95	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–38	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–19	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–19	–

Interpretations

Animal community

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations
The following table lists annual, suggested initial stocking rates with average growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ES description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. More accurate carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Bluestem/Needlegrass/Switchgrass (1.1 & 3.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./ac, air-dry):3300
Stocking Rate* (AUM/ac): 0.91

Little Bluestem/Needleandthread/Kentucky Bluegrass (3.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./ac, air-dry):2400
Stocking Rate* (AUM/ac): 0.66

Smooth Bromegrass/Kentucky Bluegrass (4.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./ac, air-dry):3000
Stocking Rate* (AUM/ac): 0.82

Kentucky Bluegrass/Sedge (4.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./ac, air-dry):1900
Stocking Rate* (AUM/ac): 0.52

Annual/Pioneer, Non-Native Perennial (4.3)
Average Annual Production (lbs./ac, air-dry):1000
Stocking Rate* (AUM/ac): 0.27

*Based on 912 lbs./acre (air-dry weight) per Animal Unit Month (AUM), and on 25 percent harvest efficiency (refer to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), National Range and Pasture Handbook).

Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements and added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B with localized areas in hydrologic group A. Infiltration is typically moderate to moderately rapid and runoff potential for this site varies from very low to medium depending on soil hydrologic group, slope, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by blue grama, bluegrass, and/or smooth bromegrass will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching, and other opportunities. The wide varieties of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an esthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

MLRA 102D was created in 2022 with Agricultural Handbook 296 updated. This area was MLRA 102A prior to this time. Information was copied from MLRA 102A ESDs to create the MLRA 102D ESDs.

There is no NRCS clipping data and other inventory currently available for this site. Information presented here has been derived using field observations from range-trained personnel. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; and Bruce Kunze, Soil Scientist, NRCS.

Other references

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C. Carpenter, and W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of the Coterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. Washington, DC. 92 pps.

Gilbert, M. C., Whited, P. M., Clairain Jr, E. J., & Smith, R. D. (2006). A Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Prairie Potholes. Washington DC.

Samson, F. B., & Knopf, F. L. (1996). Prairie Conservation Preserving North America's Most Endagered Ecosystem. Washington D.C.: Island Press.

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. Accessed March 2018.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook, Revision 1. Grazing Lands Technology Institute. 214 pps.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296. 672pps.

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2022. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 296.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, 2150 Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/nasis/)

USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 27 March 2018). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. 2013. Level III and Level IV Ecoregions of the Continental United States. Corvallis, OR, U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, map scale 1:3,000,000. Available at http://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- continental-united-states. (Accessed 1 March 2018)

Contributors

Megan Baxter
Stan Boltz
Lance Howe
Steve Winter

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 8/14/2024

Acknowledgments

Contact for Lead Authors: Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS), Redfield Soil Survey Office Redfield, SD; Lance Howe (Lance.Howe@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; and Steve Winter (Steven.Winter@usda.gov), Soil Scientist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD

Additional Information Acknowledgment: Jason Hermann (Jason.Hermann@usda.gov), Area Rangeland Management Specialist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	David Schmidt, Tim Nordquist, Stan Boltz
Contact for lead author
Date	12/07/2004
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Rills should not be present.
Presence of water flow patterns:
Barely observable.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Essentially non-existent.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground less than 5% and less than 2 inches in diameter.
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Active gullies should not be present.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Little to no plant litter movement. Plant litter remains in place and is not moved by erosional forces.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Stability class usually 5-6. Typically high root content. Soil surface is very resistant to erosion.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Use soil series description for depth and color of A-horizon.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Healthy, deep rooted native grasses enhance infiltration and reduce runoff.
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
No compaction layer should be evident.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Tall warm-season rhizomatous grass > mid warm-season bunch grass

Sub-dominant:
> mid/tall cool-season bunch grass > mid warm-season rhizomatous grass > forb > short cool-season grass/grass-likes = short warm-season grass = shrubs

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little to no evidence of decadence or mortality.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
70-80%, roughly 0.5 inch thick or less. Litter cover is in contact with soil surface.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
2800 – 3700 lbs./acre air-dry weight, average 3,300 lbs./acre air-dry weight
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Refer to State and Local Noxious Weed List, also Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass.
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All species are capable of reproducing.

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Ecosystem states

3. Native/Invaded State

4. Invaded State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)