Clayey Upland

Description

The Reference State is dominated by warm-season perennial grasses, a composite of predominantly native species of tallgrasses and midgrasses, interspersed with numerous perennial forbs. A small component of shrubs and cool-season grasses also occur. This state has three plant community phases that are dynamic in nature and are dependent on fire frequency and grazing impacts.

Characteristics and indicators

An introduction and/or increase of woody plants can occur in the Reference State and initiates the transition to the Encroached State. The lengthening of fire return interval, lack of fire intensity, and lack of competition from the warm-season perennial grasses, the greater the chance of woody species to establish and increase. Within the Reference State, the woody vegetation will generally be less than 15 percent canopy cover per acre. An introduction of seed from introduced, invasive or noxious plants can occur in the Reference State and is the starting point for transition to the Pastureland State. If introduced, invasive, or noxious plants are present, they should not exceed those percentages shown in the plant communities identified in the Pastureland State. Tillage has not been a disturbance in the Reference State.

Resilience management

The Reference State is maintained through fire, grazing, and management. Fire will have a return interval of one to three years that includes the timing and intensity to negatively impact undesirable species. Grazing will include a forage-animal balance and adaptive decision-making to ensure the dominant plants within the reference plant community can maintain vigor. Management will include strategies to prevent non-native seed introduction (woody or herbaceous) and scouting with targeted control methods if initial establishment occurs.

Submodel

Description

The Woody State is dominated by a shrub and/or tree plant community. The increase and spread of shrubs and trees resulted from an absence of fire and will be accelerated by seed introduction and/or spread. Woody plants can increase up to 34% from a lack of fire according to a study from 1937 to 1969, in contrast to a 1% increase on burned areas (Bragg and Hulbert, 1976). Periodic burning will hinder the establishment of most woody species and favor forbs and grasses. However, not all unburned areas have a woody plant invasion. Birds, small mammals, and livestock are instrumental in the distribution and spread of seed for most tree and shrub species common to this site. The speed of encroachment varies considerably and can occur on both grazed and non-grazed sites.

This State is dominated by shrubs and trees. Degraded reference sites that have experienced fire suppression for 20 years or more will transition to this woody invaded state. While the woody species such as Osage orange, honey locust, eastern red cedar, and coralberry will increase significantly, native ground cover will decrease. Transitioning back to the Reference State may be possible machine woody removal and prescribed fire.

Characteristics and indicators

Hydrologic function in the Woody Invaded State is affected by the amount of shrub and/or tree cover compared to the Reference State. Canopy interception loss can vary from 25.4% to 36.7% (Thurow and Hester, 1997). A small rainfall event is usually retained in the foliage and does not reach the litter layer at the base of the tree. Only when canopy storage is reached and exceeded does precipitation fall to the soil surface. Interception losses associated with the accumulation of leaves, twigs, and branches at the bases of trees are considerably higher than losses associated with the canopy. The decomposed material retains approximately 40% of the water that is not retained in the canopy (Thurow and Hester, 1997). Soil properties affected include biological activity, infiltration rates, and soil fertility. The Woody Invaded State has not had tillage as a disturbance and could have plants identified in the Pastureland State present on the site.

Resilience management

The Woody Invaded State is sustained by lack of fire and lack of woody plant control methods such as mechanical, chemical, or biological. Livestock that utilize browse will have greater livestock production potential in this state than those preferring plants in the Reference State. The lack of sunlight, due to shading by the shrubs and/or trees, will favor cool-season grasses that can reduce fire intensity if fire timing is during their active growth period and would help sustain the Woody Invaded State.

Submodel

Description

The Prior-Tilled State consists of abandoned cropland where the original plant community was destroyed through inversion by tillage but revegetation has occurred. Two plant communities are identified in the Prior-Tilled State and are identified by revegetation factors. The communities are identified as being naturally revegetated through succession (Go-back) or planted/seeded to species similar in composition to the reference plant community (Reseed). Plant species composition in the Prior-Tilled State is difficult to define due to the variability of plant communities that can exist.

Characteristics and indicators

The Prior-Tilled State is an alternative state since the energy, hydrologic, and nutrient cycles are significantly altered to that of the Reference State in its natural disturbance regime. Repeated tillage and planting of annual crops resulted in major changes in soil conditions. Reductions in organic matter, mineral levels, soil structure, oxygen levels, and water holding capacity, along with increased runoff/erosion and shifts in the populations of soil-dwelling organisms, are common in this state. The extent of these changes are dependent upon duration of cropping, crop types grown, and other management practices. Bulk density, aggregate stability, soil structure, and plant functional and structural groups are not fully restored to that of the Reference State. Mechanical tillage can destroy soil aggregation. Soil aggregates are an example of dynamic soil property change. Aggregate stability is critical for infiltration, root growth, and resistance to water and wind erosion (Brady and Weil, 2008).

Resilience management

The Prior-Tilled State is a result of a land use management decision and is sustained by diminished soil function. Implementation of practices that positively impact plant community diversity, energy flow, and nutrient and water cycle, should benefit rehabilitation. Documentation does not support rehabilitation to a Reference State within known management time frames.

Submodel

Description

The Invasive Herbaceous State is identified by a significant presence of non-native herbaceous plant species and is characterized by the composition of plant species and soil functions that govern the ecological processes. These two plant communities occur and function independent of one another.

Characteristics and indicators

Species that define this state include sericea lespedeza and Caucasian bluestem. Sericea lespedeza and Caucasian bluestem community phases are partially defined by the total production exceeding 15% by weight on a per acre basis. Tall fescue, smooth brome, and Kentucky bluegrass are partially defined by the total production exceeding 40% by weight on a per acre basis. Ecological processes within this state that are affected and differ from the Reference State are hydrologic cycle and nutrient cycle. Water content and infiltration rates are also affected by the species in the plant community phase.

Resilience management

The Invasive Herbaceous State is sustained through continued reduction in health and vigor of native plant species and the increase in health and vigor, including seed production, of non-native herbaceous species. Ensuring a lack of forage quality due to season of grazing, and type of grazing animal, of the non-native plants will deter grazing of non-native plant species and increase grazing pressure on native plant species. A general lack of treatment measures for individual species control, maintenance, and/or eradication will also allow persistence of this state.

Submodel

Description

This State is dominated by row crops such as corn, soybeans, and wheat. It occurs on sites that have been mechanically tilled and converted to agricultural cropland. After tillage, efforts are then taken to plant various crops through a conservation cropping system.

Submodel

Description

The Pastureland State is identified by a significant presence of non-native herbaceous plant species and is characterized by the composition of plant species, agronomic inputs from direct fertilization, and soil functions that govern the ecological processes. Sites consisting of introduced species and managed for their continued presence or spread should not be evaluated within this model and instead, consider using a separate land use model such as Pasture.

Characteristics and indicators

Tall fescue, smooth brome, and Kentucky bluegrass are partially defined by the total production exceeding 40% by weight on a per acre basis. Ecological processes within this state that are affected and differ from the Reference State are hydrologic cycle and nutrient cycle. Water content and infiltration rates are also affected by the species in the plant community phase.

Resilience management

Pastureland is sustained through continued reduction in health and vigor of native plant species and the increase in health and vigor, including seed production, of non-native herbaceous species. Agronomic inputs from direct fertilization or nutrient-rich runoff from adjacent crop fields will provide advantages for non-native cool-season grass species growth. Ensuring a lack of forage quality due to season of grazing, type of grazing animal, or chemical composition of the non-native plants will deter grazing of non-native plant species and increase grazing pressure on native plant species. A general lack of treatment measures for individual species control, maintenance, and/or eradication will also allow persistence of this state.

Submodel