Gravelly Upland
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
Select a state
Management practices/drivers
Select a transition or restoration pathway
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Transition T1A
Long term fire suppression
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Transition T1B
Invaded by non-native grasses and forbs.
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Transition T1C
Tillage and seeding of agricultural crops.
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Restoration pathway R2A
Removal of woody species by fire and/or mechanical methods
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Transition T2A
Tillage and seeding of agricultural crops.
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Transition T4A
Tillage and seeding of agricultural crops.
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Transition T5A
Natural revegetation or reseeding
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Transition T5B
Seeding of grasses and pasture management
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Transition T6A
Invaded by non-native grasses and forbs.
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Transition T6B
Tillage and seeding of agricultural crops
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No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
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Description
The Reference State is dominated by warm-season perennial grasses, a composite of predominantly native species of tallgrasses and midgrasses, interspersed with numerous perennial forbs. A small component of shrubs and cool-season grasses also occur. This state has three plant community phases that are dynamic in nature and are dependent on fire frequency and grazing impacts.
Characteristics and indicators
An introduction and/or increase of woody plants can occur in the Reference State and initiates the transition to the Woody Invaded State. The lengthening of fire return interval, lack of fire intensity, and lack of competition from the warm-season perennial grasses, the greater the chance of woody species to establish and increase. Within the Reference State, the woody vegetation will generally be less than 15 percent canopy cover per acre. An introduction of seed from introduced, invasive or noxious plants can occur in the Reference State and is the starting point for transition to the Pastureland State. If introduced, invasive, or noxious plants are present, they should not exceed those percentages shown in the plant communities identified in the Pastureland State. Tillage has not been a disturbance in the Reference State.
Resilience management
The Reference State is maintained through fire, grazing, and management. Fire will have a return interval of one to three years that includes the timing and intensity to negatively impact undesirable species. Grazing will include a forage-animal balance and adaptive decision-making to ensure the dominant plants within the reference plant community can maintain vigor. Management will include strategies to prevent non-native seed introduction (woody or herbaceous) and scouting with targeted control methods if initial establishment occurs.
Submodel
Description
The Woody Invaded State is dominated by a shrub and/or tree plant community. The increase and spread of shrubs and trees resulted from an absence of fire and will be accelerated by seed introduction and/or spread. Woody plants can increase up to 34% from a lack of fire according to a study from 1937 to 1969, in contrast to a 1% increase on burned areas (Bragg and Hulbert, 1976). Periodic burning will hinder the establishment of most woody species and favor forbs and grasses. However, not all unburned areas have a woody plant invasion. Birds, small mammals, and livestock are instrumental in the distribution and spread of seed for most tree and shrub species common to this site. The speed of encroachment varies considerably and can occur on both grazed and non-grazed sites.
Characteristics and indicators
Hydrologic function in the Woody Invaded State is affected by the amount of shrub and/or tree cover compared to the Reference State. Canopy interception loss can vary from 25.4% to 36.7% (Thurow and Hester, 1997). A small rainfall event is usually retained in the foliage and does not reach the litter layer at the base of the tree. Only when canopy storage is reached and exceeded does precipitation fall to the soil surface. Interception losses associated with the accumulation of leaves, twigs, and branches at the bases of trees are considerably higher than losses associated with the canopy. The decomposed material retains approximately 40% of the water that is not retained in the canopy (Thurow and Hester, 1997). Soil properties affected include biological activity, infiltration rates, and soil fertility. The Woody Invaded State has not had tillage as a disturbance and could have plants identified in the Pastureland State present on the site.
Resilience management
The Woody Invaded State is sustained by lack of fire and lack of woody plant control methods such as mechanical, chemical, or biological. Livestock that utilize browse will have greater livestock production potential in this state than those preferring plants in the Reference State. The lack of sunlight, due to shading by the shrubs and/or trees, will favor cool-season grasses that can reduce fire intensity if fire timing is during their active growth period and would help sustain the Woody Invaded State.
Submodel
Description
The Prior-Tilled State consists of abandoned cropland where the original plant community was destroyed through inversion by tillage but revegetation has occurred. Two plant communities are identified in the Prior-Tilled State and are identified by revegetation factors. The communities are identified as being naturally revegetated through succession (Go-back) or planted/seeded to species similar in composition to the reference plant community (Reseed). Plant species composition in the Prior-Tilled State is difficult to define due to the variability of plant communities that can exist.
Characteristics and indicators
The Prior-Tilled State is an alternative state since the energy, hydrologic, and nutrient cycles are significantly altered to that of the Reference State in its natural disturbance regime. Repeated tillage and planting of annual crops resulted in major changes in soil conditions. Reductions in organic matter, mineral levels, soil structure, oxygen levels, and water holding capacity, along with increased runoff/erosion and shifts in the populations of soil-dwelling organisms, are common in this state. The extent of these changes are dependent upon duration of cropping, crop types grown, and other management practices. Bulk density, aggregate stability, soil structure, and plant functional and structural groups are not fully restored to that of the Reference State. Mechanical tillage can destroy soil aggregation. Soil aggregates are an example of dynamic soil property change. Aggregate stability is critical for infiltration, root growth, and resistance to water and wind erosion (Brady and Weil, 2008).
Resilience management
The Prior-Tilled State is a result of a land use management decision and is sustained by diminished soil function. Implementation of practices that positively impact plant community diversity, energy flow, and nutrient and water cycle, should benefit rehabilitation. Documentation does not support rehabilitation to a Reference State within known management time frames.
Submodel
Description
The Invasive Herbaceous State is identified by a significant presence of non-native herbaceous plant species and is characterized by the composition of plant species and soil functions that govern the ecological processes.
Characteristics and indicators
Species that define this state include sericea lespedeza and Caucasian bluestem. Sericea lespedeza and Caucasian bluestem community phases are partially defined by the total production exceeding 15% by weight on a per acre basis. Ecological processes within this state that are affected and differ from the Reference State are hydrologic cycle and nutrient cycle. Water content and infiltration rates are also affected by the species in the plant community phase.
Resilience management
The Invasive Herbaceous State is sustained through continued reduction in health and vigor of native plant species and the increase in health and vigor, including seed production, of non-native herbaceous species. Ensuring a lack of forage quality due to season of grazing, and type of grazing animal, of the non-native plants will deter grazing of non-native plant species and increase grazing pressure on native plant species. A general lack of treatment measures for individual species control, maintenance, and/or eradication will also allow persistence of this state.
Submodel
Description
This State is dominated by row crops such as corn, soybeans, and wheat. It occurs on sites that have been mechanically tilled and converted to agricultural cropland. After tillage, efforts are then taken to plant various crops through a conservation cropping system.
Submodel
Description
The Pastureland State is identified by a significant presence of non-native herbaceous plant species and is characterized by the composition of plant species, agronomic inputs from direct fertilization, and soil functions that govern the ecological processes. Sites consisting of introduced species and managed for their continued presence or spread should not be evaluated within this model and instead, consider using a separate land use model such as Pasture.
Characteristics and indicators
Tall fescue, smooth brome, and Kentucky bluegrass are partially defined by the total production exceeding 40% by weight on a per acre basis. Ecological processes within this state that are affected and differ from the Reference State are hydrologic cycle and nutrient cycle. Water content and infiltration rates are also affected by the species in the plant community phase.
Resilience management
Pastureland is sustained through continued reduction in health and vigor of native plant species and the increase in health and vigor, including seed production, of non-native herbaceous species. Agronomic inputs from direct fertilization or nutrient-rich runoff from adjacent crop fields will provide advantages for non-native cool-season grass species growth. Ensuring a lack of forage quality due to season of grazing, type of grazing animal, or chemical composition of the non-native plants will deter grazing of non-native plant species and increase grazing pressure on native plant species. A general lack of treatment measures for individual species control, maintenance, and/or eradication will also allow persistence of this state.
Submodel
Mechanism
Long term fire suppression (20+ years) will transition the Reference State to a Woody State. A lack of fire events will allow woody species to establish and increase, shifting the site to dominant trees and shrubs with a reduction in desirable grasses and forbs in the understory.
Mechanism
A transition from Reference to an Invasive Herbaceous State occurs when the site is invaded by either Caucasian bluestem and/or Sericea lespedeza with the total production exceeding 15% by weight on a per acre basis.
Mechanism
Tillage (or no-till if that management style is preferred) and seeding of agricultural crops will transition this site from a Reference State to a Cropland State.
Mechanism
Restoration actions to return to a Reference State may include machinery woody removal and prescribed fire. Efforts will be costly, labor-intensive, and can take many years, if not decades. Once canopy levels reach greater than 20 percent, estimated cost to remove trees is very expensive and includes high energy inputs.
Mechanism
Tillage (or no-till if that management style is preferred) and seeding of agricultural crops will transition this site from a Woody State to a Cropland State.
Mechanism
Tillage (or no-till if that management style is preferred) and seeding of agricultural crops will transition this site from an Invasive Herbaceous State to a Cropland State.
Mechanism
Allowing the site to naturally revegetate as it regenerates, or reseeding the site with native grasses and forbs with proper management afterwards will transition this site from a Cropland to a Prior-Tilled State.
Mechanism
Seeding of cool season grasses and forbs and proper pasture management will transition this Cropland to a Pastureland.
Mechanism
A transition from Pastureland to an Invasive Herbaceous State occurs when the site is invaded by either Caucasian bluestem and/or Sericea lespedeza with the total production exceeding 15% by weight on a per acre basis.
Model keys
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The Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.