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Ecological site F116AY090MO

Low-Base Chert Upland Pine Woodland

Last updated: 5/28/2025
Accessed: 12/05/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 116A–Ozark Highland

The Ozark Highland MLRA constitutes the Salem Plateau of the Ozark Uplift. Elevation ranges from about 300 feet on the southeast edge of the Ozark escarpment, to about 1,600 feet in the west, adjacent to the Burlington Escarpment of the Springfield Plateau. The underlying bedrock is mainly horizontally bedded Ordovician-aged dolomites and sandstones that dip gently away from the uplift apex in southeast Missouri. Cambrian dolomites are exposed on deeply dissected hillslopes. In some places, Pennsylvanian and Mississippian sediments overlie the plateau. Relief varies, from the gently rolling central plateau areas to deeply dissected hillslopes associated with drainageways such as the Buffalo, Current, Eleven Point and White Rivers (USDA, 2014).

The Current River Hills subsection (OZ9) (Figure 5) of the Ozark Highland lies on the southeastern flank of the broad Ozark uplift. Strata dip gently southward, but they appear in any locality as horizontal. The subsection is underlain by a variety of formations. High, gently rolling dissected plains and hills are underlain mainly by resistant sandstones and dolomites of the Roubidoux Formation. More deeply dissected lands are cut first into the dolomites of the Ordovician Gasconade Formation, and then, in the deepest valleys, into the Cambrian Eminence-Potosi Formation. Some of the higher ridges are underlain by the Ordovician Jefferson City–Cotter dolomite, which although present, often occurs as a remnant landform with completely weathered bedrock beneath. All materials in the thick sequence of carbonate rocks are soluble and create karst topography, including some very large springs and caverns, sinkholes, box (blunt headed) valleys, and dry valleys. Although not karst, areas of sandstone often produce extensive areas of sinkholes into the weathered dolomite beneath the surface. Surficial materials are clayey or loamy with numerous rock fragments, chiefly insoluble chert left behind as the carbonate rocks are dissolved. The land surface is thoroughly dissected with narrow ridges and valleys and steep slopes near the major rivers and broader ridges and valleys more distant from the rivers. Except on the highest, loess-covered divides, the landscape, including river bottoms, is conspicuously mantled with rock fragments. Local relief throughout most of the subsection is 200 to 600 feet (Nigh and Schroeder, 2002).

LRU notes

Land-type association (LTA) in the Current River Hills subsection:
Current River Pine-Oak Woodland Dissected Plain: The LTA consists of a moderately dissected upland plain associated with the Roubidoux Formation. Relief over large tracts averages less than 100 feet but increase towards the river margins. Karst occurs in several areas (Figure 6). The LTA was historically and is currently covered in pine and pine-oak woodland and forest associated with sandy soils. It also includes many unique sinkhole pond communities (Nigh and Schroeder, 2002).

Classification relationships

• Major Land Resource Area (MLRA):116A – Ozark Highland (Current River Hills subsection)
• USDA Forest Service (FS) National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units: 200 Humid Temperate Domain; 222 Eastern Broadleaf Forest (Continental) Division/Province; 222A Ozark Highlands Section/Subsection

Terrestrial Natural Community Type in Missouri: The reference state for this ecological site is most like a Dry Chert Woodland; Community Variation and Subtype: shortleaf pine, post oak/lowbush blueberry (Nelson, 2010).

Missouri Department of Conservation Forest and Woodland Communities: The reference state for this ecological site is most like a Pine Oak Woodland in the historic pine range (MDC, 2006).

National Vegetation Classification System Vegetation Association: The reference state for this ecological site is most like Shortleaf Pine–Post Oak–Blackjack Oak–Little Bluestem Woodland (Pinus echinata - Quercus stellata - Quercus marilandica / Schizachyrium scoparium Woodland) (CEGL002393) (NatureServe, 2010).

LANDFIRE Biophysical Setting Reference Conditions: Ozark Ouachita Shortleaf Pine Bluestem Woodland. BsP 441507 (LANDFIRE, 2008).

Atlas of Missouri Ecoregions: This ecological site is widespread across the Ozark Highlands Section, Current River Hills subsection, OZ9a Current River Pine-Oak Woodland Dissected Plain Landtype Association (Nigh and Schroeder, 2002).

Forest Service Desired Conditions for Natural Community Types by Management Prescription: Shortleaf Pine/Oak/Bluestem (Open); Dry and Dry-mesic Chert Woodland (Forest Service, 2005).

Ecological site concept

Low-base Chert Upland Pine Woodland ecological sites are widely distributed on dissected hillslopes in the south and west regions of the Ozark Highland. These sites range from broad summits associated with the minimally dissected divides between the rivers, to narrow ridges in highly dissected rugged hills nearer the rivers. They are often associated with hillslope sediments derived from the Roubidoux and upper Gasconade geologic formations.

This ecological site typically occurs above Low Base Backslope Woodlands that frequently have Dolomite Glade/Woodland units nested within them. Within the historic pine range, shortleaf pine was a common overstory component. Soils are typically very deep, acidic, and low in bases such as calcium, with an abundance of chert fragments.

The historic vegetation contained an open canopy dominated by shortleaf pine. Common canopy associates included black hickory (Carya texana), post oak (Quercus stellata), white oak (Quercus alba), black oak (Quercus velutina), blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), and persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). Grassy openings were dominated by little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium). Abundant herbs included longbract wild indigo (Baptisia bracteata), hairy sunflower (Helianthus hirsutus), tall blazing star (Liatris aspera), gray goldenrod (Solidago nemoralis), downy ragged goldenrod (Solidago petiolaris), and Virginia tephrosia (Tephrosia virginiana). (NatureServe, 2010).

Forest Service National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units for this area (Bailey, 1995) indicate that dry upland sites include post oak, blackjack oak, and black hickory with lichen-moss ground cover, and shortleaf pine-oak in areas of sandstone bedrock. Mesic slopes sites have white oak (Quercus alba), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis) - flowering dogwood (Cornus florida). Glades have little bluestem and bald grass (Sporobolus vaginiflorus var. ozarkanus). Eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) has invaded many of these sites because of fire suppression (Bailey, 1995).

Associated sites

F116AY004MO	Fragipan Upland Woodland Fragipan Upland Woodlands are upslope, on summits.
F116AY037MO	Gravelly/Loamy Upland Drainageway Forest Gravelly/Loamy Upland Drainageway Forests are often downslope.

F116AY004MO

Fragipan Upland Woodland

Fragipan Upland Woodlands are upslope, on summits.

F116AY037MO

Gravelly/Loamy Upland Drainageway Forest

Gravelly/Loamy Upland Drainageway Forests are often downslope.

Similar sites

F116AY049MO	Low-Base Chert Exposed Backslope Woodland The Low-base Chert Exposed Backslope Woodlands occupy the southerly and westerly aspects of steep, dissected slopes. Soils are typically very deep, acidic, and low in bases such as calcium, with an abundance of chert fragments. Soil acidity is an important factor affecting the distribution of both tree and ground flora species and their growth. As a soil profile approaches or arrives at lower levels of pH, exchangeable aluminum comes into solution and can directly impact plant growth and composition. The reference plant community is a woodland of black oak and white oak, with shortleaf pine in the historic shortleaf pine range, and a ground flora of native grasses and forbs.
F116AY012MO	Low-Base Chert Upland Woodland Low-base Chert Upland Woodlands are widely distributed on dissected hillslopes. Within the historic pine range this ecological site was usually dominated by shortleaf pine. Soils are typically very deep, acidic, and low in bases such as calcium, with an abundance of chert fragments. The reference plant community is a woodland of white oak and black oak, with shortleaf pine in the historic pine range, and a ground flora of native grasses and forbs.
F116AY011MO	Chert Upland Woodland Chert Upland Woodlands are widely distributed on dissected hillslopes throughout the Ozark Highland. Soils are typically very deep, with an abundance of chert fragments. The reference plant community is woodland with an overstory dominated by white oak and black oak, and a ground flora of native grasses and forbs.
F116AY062MO	Chert Exposed Backslope Woodland The Chert Exposed Backslope Woodlands occupy the southerly and westerly aspects of steep, dissected slopes, and are mapped in complex with the Chert Protected Backslope Forest ecological site. Chert Backslope ecological sites are common throughout the Ozark Highland where major streams have dissected deeply into the Salem Plateau. Soils are typically very deep, with an abundance of chert fragments. The reference plant community is a woodland with an overstory dominated by black oak and white oak and a ground flora of native grasses and forbs.

Figure 1. Pistol Barrell burn unit, Ozark National Scenic Riverways, Jacks Fork River, Shannon County (from FS).

Figure 2. Pineknot Restoration Area, Ozark National Scenic Riverways, Carter County (from FS).

Figure 3. Location of the Current River Hills subsection associated with MLRA 116A. (Figure from Nigh and Schroeder, 2002)

Figure 4. (Nigh and Schroeder, 2002)

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Pinus echinata (2) Quercus stellata
Shrub	(1) Vaccinium pallidum
Herbaceous	(1) Schizachyrium scoparium

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Physiographic features

This site is on upland summit crests with slopes of 1 to 15 percent. The site generates runoff to adjacent, downslope ecological sites. This site does not flood. This area is part of the Forest Service Ozark Plateaus geomorphic province. Most of the area is equally divided between steep hills with local relief up to 1,000 feet and rolling hills with local relief between 200 and 500 feet. There are also gently rolling plains with local relief of less than 200 feet. Current geomorphic processes are fluvial erosion, transport and deposition, and mass wasting. Widespread karst features include caves, sinkholes, and springs. The elevation ranges for the Ozark Plateaus province range from 300 to 1,800 feet (Bailey, 1995) while the Current River Hills subsection elevations range from 600 to 1200 feet (Nigh and Schroeder, 2002).

Figure 7 (adapted from Wolf, 1989) shows the typical landscape position of this ecological site, and landscape relationships with other ecological sites. It is within the area labeled “3” on the figure, on lower backslopes with southerly to westerly exposures. Low-base Chert Protected Backslope Woodland sites are on the corresponding northerly to easterly exposures. Upper slopes and shoulders are in the Low-base Chert Upland Pine Woodland ecological site, labeled “2”. Upslope crests that have a layer of loess are often Fragipan Upland Flatwoods sites, labeled “1”.

Figure 5. (adapted from Wolf, 1989)

Figure 6. block diagram design for this region – from Meinert, Nigh, and Kabrick

Figure 7. An idealized stratigraphy of the various lithologic units that make up the Salem and Springfield Plateaus. Figure based on Kisvarsanyi and Kisvarsanyi, 1976; Orndorff et al., 2001; Weary et al., 2004; Weary and Orndorff, 2017

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Hillslope profile	(1) Shoulder (2) Summit
Landforms	(1) Ridge (2) Hillslope (3) Interfluve
Runoff class	Low to very high
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	600 – 1,200 ft
Slope	1 – 15%
Water table depth	30 – 60 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

The Ozark Highland MLRA has a continental type of climate marked by strong seasonality. In winter, dry-cold air masses, unchallenged by any topographic barriers, periodically swing south from the northern plains and Canada. If they invade reasonably humid air, snowfall, and rainfall result. In summer, moist, warm air masses, equally unchallenged by topographic barriers, swing north from the Gulf of Mexico and can produce abundant amounts of rain, either by fronts or by convectional processes. In some summers, high pressure stagnates over the region, creating extended droughty periods. Spring and fall are transitional seasons when abrupt changes in temperature and precipitation may occur due to successive, fast-moving fronts separating contrasting air masses.

The Ozark Highland experiences regional differences in climates, but these differences do not have obvious geographic boundaries. Regional climates grade inconspicuously into each other. The basic gradient for most climatic characteristics is along a line crossing the MLRA from northwest to southeast. The average annual precipitation in almost all this area is 38 to 45 inches (97 to 114 cm). Snow falls nearly every winter, but the snow cover lasts for only a few days. The average annual temperature is about 53 to 60 °F (11.7 to 15.5 °C). The lower temperatures occur at the higher elevations in the western part of the MLRA. Mean January minimum temperature follows a stronger north-to-south gradient. However, mean July maximum temperature shows hardly any geographic variation in the MLRA. Mean July maximum temperatures have a range of only two or three degrees across the area.

Mean annual precipitation varies along a northwest to southeast gradient. Seasonal climatic variations are more complex. Seasonality in precipitation is pronounced due to strong continental influences. May precipitation, for example, averages nearly two times greater than January precipitation. Most of the rainfall occurs as high-intensity, convective thunderstorms in summer. During years when precipitation comes in a normal manner, moisture is stored in the top layers of the soil during the winter and early spring, when evaporation and transpiration are low. During the summer months the loss of water by evaporation and transpiration is high, and if rainfall fails to occur at frequent intervals, drought will result. Drought directly affects plant and animal life by limiting water supplies, especially at times of high temperatures and high evaporation rates.

Microclimatic variations. Superimposed upon the basic MLRA climatic patterns are local topographic influences that create topoclimatic, or microclimatic variations. In regions of appreciable relief, for example, air drainage at nighttime may produce temperatures several degrees lower in valley bottoms than on side slopes. At critical times during the year, this phenomenon may produce later spring or earlier fall freezes in valley bottoms. Deep sinkholes often have a microclimate significantly cooler, moister, and shadier than surrounding surfaces, a phenomenon that may result in a strikingly different ecology. Higher daytime temperatures of bare rock surfaces and higher reflectivity of these un-vegetated surfaces may create distinctive environmental niches such as glades and cliffs. Slope orientation is an important topographic influence on climate. Summits and south-and-west-facing slopes are regularly warmer and drier than adjacent north- and-east-facing slopes. Finally, the climate within a canopied forest is measurably different from the climate of a more open grassland or savanna areas. (University of Missouri Climate Center, 2014; USDA, 2014)

Current River Hills subsection: Average annual precipitation is 40.72 inches (103.4 cm), which includes rainfall plus the water equivalent from snowfall (Table 2; Figure 3). The average annual low and high temperatures are 43.8 and 68.9 °F (6.5 and 20.5 °C), respectively. The average freeze-free period of this ecological site is 179 days, while the frost-free period is 157 days (Table 3). Climate data and analyses are derived from 30-year average gathered from four National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) weather stations contained within the range of this ecological site (Table 4).

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	158-162 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	185-192 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	46-47 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	157-163 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	184-193 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	45-48 in
Frost-free period (average)	160 days
Freeze-free period (average)	189 days
Precipitation total (average)	47 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 8. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 9. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 10. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 11. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 12. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 13. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) CLEARWATER DAM [USC00231674], Ellington, MO
(2) EMINENCE 1 N [USC00232619], Eminence, MO
(3) ROUND SPRING 2SW [USC00237309], Eminence, MO
(4) SALEM [USC00237506], Salem, MO

Influencing water features

Water features associated with this ecological site are influenced by karst landscapes throughout the area (Figure 16) producing losing streams, springs and spring-fed streams, seeps, and fens. Rainfall enters the groundwater system through the soil or by flowing into sinkholes and streams. Springs form where land drops low enough to meet underground water tables. Dissolution of carbonate rocks along fractures and faults has produced cave systems, sinkholes (closed and open), springs, and natural tunnels in the region. These sinkholes and losing streams can rapidly transfer water from upland recharge areas to spring outlets. The most common mechanism for groundwater recharge occurs by the relatively slow downward movement of water through soil and carbonate bedrock over a large area known as diffuse recharge, which maintains a high storage volume providing a consistent supply of water to springs. In addition to diffuse recharge, aquifers in karst terrain receive the relatively rapid transfer of water through sinkholes or losing streams connected by subsurface conduits. Surface water entering the aquifer in this fashion has very little contact with soil or rock and consequently the chemical nature of the water changes little in route. Discharge variability does not seem to be controlled by drainage area, but rather the conduit capacity of losing stream sections that can transport the entire volume of base-flow during dry periods in the year. High variability in base flow shows the impact of karst in the form of losing and gaining stream sections (Owen and Pavlowsky, 2010).

Figure 14. Missouri Ozarks is characterized by eroded rolling hills, deep hollows, springs, caves, sinkholes, losing streams, natural bridges, and tunnels. Figure credit: Jo Schaper's Missouri World.

Soil features

Soils associated with Low-Base Chert Upland Pine Woodlands are generally very deep, acidic, and low in bases (Ultisols) such as calcium, with an abundance of chert fragments. Soil acidity is an important factor affecting the distribution of both tree and ground flora species and their growth. As a soil profile approaches or arrives at lower levels of pH, exchangeable aluminum comes into solution and can directly impact plant growth and composition. Soils having low concentrations of calcium and containing few calcium bearing minerals along with increased levels of aluminum may also be vulnerable to base depletion by timber harvesting, plant uptake, and leaching. Some soils have chert bedrock a t less than 60 inches. The soils were formed under woodland vegetation, and have thin, light-colored surface horizons. Parent material is slope alluvium over residuum weathered from dolomite or sandstone. Minerology is siliceous or mixed. Surface horizon textures are gravelly to extremely gravelly and cobbly silt loam. Subsoils are typically skeletal, with high amounts of coarse fragments, primarily chert. These soils are all in the Ultisol order, classified as Typic Paleudults, Typic Hapludults, or Typic Fragiudults, and are not affected by seasonal wetness (Table 5).

The principal soil series correlated to this ecological site are Clarksville (Loamy-skeletal, siliceous, semiactive, mesic Typic Paleudults), Poynor (Loamy-skeletal over clayey, siliceous, semiactive, mesic Typic Paleudults) and Bendavis (Loamy-skeletal, siliceous, active, mesic Typic Hapludults). These three soil series exemplify the central concept for this ecological site discussed above.

Included within the concept of this ecological site are Doniphan (Very-fine, mixed, semiactive, mesic Typic Paleudults) and Scholten (Loamy-skeletal, siliceous, active, mesic Typic Fragiudults) soils. These soils have a gravely Ap’s and are Ultisols, but are either clayey throughout the Bt horizon (Doniphan) or have a Btx (fragipan) (Scholten).

Photo shows a soil pit in the Clarksville series with a thin, light-colored surface horizon underlain by reddish loam with a high chert fragment content. Although rooting depth is high, as is shown in this picture, plants must be adapted to these low-base, low available water soils, which are also high in soluble aluminum.

Soil Series: Bendavis, Clarksville, Doniphan, Poynor, Scholten, and Wilderness

Figure 15. Soil pit in the Clarksville series.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Residuum – dolomite
Surface texture	(1) Very gravelly silt loam
Family particle size	(1) Clayey
Drainage class	Moderately well drained to somewhat excessively drained
Permeability class	Very slow to moderately slow
Depth to restrictive layer	30 – 80 in
Soil depth	30 – 80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	15 – 65%
Surface fragment cover >3"	15%
Available water capacity (Depth not specified)	2 – 4 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (Depth not specified)	Not specified
Electrical conductivity (Depth not specified)	2 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (Depth not specified)	Not specified
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (Depth not specified)	3.5 – 6.5
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	35 – 70%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	5 – 40%

Ecological dynamics

Species composition and structure of the reference plant community varies for this ecological site based on its relative location to the Ozark Highland historic native shortleaf pine range. Fragmentary evidence from old records indicate that the original timber stands in the Ozark Highland contained a large volume of shortleaf pine on relatively restricted concentrated areas, (green areas, Figures 18 and 19) but a relatively smaller volume of shortleaf pine on more extensive areas (gray cross-hatched area, Figure 18) (Fletcher and McDermott, 1957).

Within the historical native pine range this ecological site was dominated by drought and fire-tolerant shortleaf pine, with occasional to frequent scarlet oak, black oak, and post oak. This pine dominated woodland ranged from open park-like woodlands to more closed woodlands. Canopy closure likely varied from 40 to 80 percent and tree height from 70 to 100 feet. Native prairie grasses dominated the open understory, along with a diverse mix of native legumes, asters, sunflowers, and other forbs (Fletcher and McDermott, 1957). Extreme soil chert volume, low soil bases and complicated landscape complexes are unifying soil features. Woodlands are distinguished from forests by their relatively open understory and the presence of sun-loving ground flora species.

These areas occur within the natural range of shortleaf pine on the dissected plains of the southern Current River Hills. It is distinguished as Missouri’s largest remaining and most extensive cover of shortleaf pine woodland interspersed with sinkhole ponds, losing streams and several caves that harbor many species of conservation concern. Prescribed burning and various silvicultural methods to meet desired conditions for shortleaf pine natural communities are primary management needs. (USFS, 2005)

At the Nordic Hollow Missouri Ozark Forest Ecosystem Project (MOFEP) study site in Carter County, east of Winona, Missouri, the present day pine abundance is about 21 percent of historic levels on upland ridges. Shortleaf pines in the present day native pine range are less than 100 years old and rarely exceed 14 inches (35 cm) DBH while historically, shortleaf pine attained ages of 250 to 300 years or more and were generally more than 28 inches (70 cm) DBH. The abundance of historic shortleaf pine declined most on the ridges and side slopes within this region. (Guyette and Dey, 1997)

Fire played an important role in the maintenance of reference community phases. Their high, flat landscape positions likely supported a high fire frequency of every 3 to 5 years on edge of central plateau to over 10 years on ridges in the river breaks. These periodic fires kept woodlands open, removed the litter, and stimulated the growth and flowering of the grasses and forbs. During fire free intervals, woody understory species increased, and the herbaceous understory diminished. The return of fire would open the woodlands up again and stimulate the abundant ground flora (Fletcher and McDermott, 1957).

Growth of shortleaf pines beyond the seedling stage requires a fire-free period sufficiently long to permit the development of features that increase the resistance of pine to fire. Increasing the distance between the crown and ground reduces the probability that pines will experience crown scorch. Also, bark thickness increases as pines grow, which protects the cambium from heat injury caused by fire. Fires in the Current River Hills region were frequent enough to maintain low fuel loadings and thus reduce the severity of subsequent fires. Fires were most likely low intensity surface fires in all but the driest years. (Guyette and Dey, 1997)

Before the 1800’s, fires were frequent enough to promote this regeneration of pine seedlings but not so frequent as to prevent recruitment of pine into the overstory. From 1701 to 1790, the mean fire-free interval (MFI) was 8.9 years, and it was common for individual fire-free intervals to be from 10 to 20 years. This disturbance regime favored the establishment of shortleaf pine and allowed recruitment of pine into the overstory by improving seed bed conditions for shortleaf pine that reduced the depth of litter or through exposed mineral soil. (Guyette and Dey, 1997).

This ecological site was also historically subjected to other occasional disturbances from wind, ice, as well as grazing by large native herbivores. Wind and ice would have periodically opened the canopy up by knocking over trees or breaking substantial branches off canopy trees. Grazing by large native herbivores such as bison (Bison bison), elk (Cervus canadensis canadensis), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) would have effectively helped to keep understory conditions more open, creating conditions more favorable to pine reproduction and sun-loving ground flora species. (Anderson, 2006)

Most of the pine community was cleared by extensive logging around 1890 to1920 (Figure 20). In the early 1900’s, the Missouri Ozarks, in addition to extensive logging, were subjected to open-range overgrazing, over-burning, and subsequent soil erosion and loss of the grass/herbaceous ground cover component. (Cunningham and Hauser, 1989) Changes in forest vegetation brought about by these activities, along with changes in hydrological processes have led to less productive, doughtier soils, timber overstocking, and loss of healthy ecosystems. Oak decline, which occurs cyclically in the area and appears to coincide with extended periods of drought, has been worsened by these historic changes.

Today, most of these ecological sites have been largely cleared and converted to non-native cool season pasture, undergone repeated timber harvest and uncontrolled domestic grazing, or converted to pine plantations. Selective removal of pine, followed by intense hardwood competition, reduced shortleaf pine abundance in the Ozarks over the past century. In addition, long ﬁre intervals caused by ﬁre suppression have contributed to a long-term decline in pine abundance (Cunningham and Hauser, 1989). Most existing woodland ecological sites have a younger (50 to 80 years) canopy layer whose species composition and quality has been altered by timber harvesting practices and predominate on exposed slopes over 10 percent (Fletcher and McDermott, 1957). In the long-term absence of fire, woody species, such as oak and hickory, encroach into these woodlands. Once established, these woody plants can quickly fill the existing understory increasing shade levels with a greatly diminished ground flora (Figure 21). Most occurrences today exhibit canopy closure of 80 to 100 percent and are oak dominated. Long-term implications to forest health exist (Forest Service, 2005). The Forest Service Management Plan (2005) for the Mark Twain Forest delineates a management direction for restoring and maintaining healthy forest ecosystems. Plan action items include providing a healthier balance of shortleaf pine and post oak in what is now a predominantly black oak and scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea) forest and restoring the woodland habitats encountered by early settlers.

These ecological sites are moderately productive (NRCS, 2014). Maintenance of the pine woodlands will require disturbances that will encourage pine and more sun adapted species and reduce shading effects. Removal of the younger understory and the application of prescribed fire (Figure 22) have proven to be effective restoration methods for restoring the more open structure and increasing pine densities and the diversity of the ground flora species. Characteristic plants in the ground flora can be used to gauge the restoration potential of a stand along with remnant open-grown old-age trees. Managed areas show exceptional resiliency. In the pine woodland areas, these practices discussed previously encourage recruitment of shortleaf pine when mature pines are nearby to provide a seed source. Despite the widespread removal of pine from this system, there are many areas with some pine present on this ecological site. Where present, selective cutting, hardwood control and prescribed fire can help recruit pine, restore the more open structure, and increase the diversity of ground flora species (Brinkman and Smith, 1968).

A state-and-transition model diagram is depicted in below. Detailed descriptions of each state, transition, plant community, and pathway follow the model. This model is based on available experimental research, field observations, professional consensus, and interpretations. It is likely to change as knowledge increases.

State and transition model

Custom diagram

Standard diagram

Figure 16. Range map with cross-hatching showing the historic distribution of shortleaf pine in the Midwest. Green shading show areas where shortleaf pine was a dominate overstory species.

Figure 17. GLO GIS map showing the historic distribution of shortleaf pine in and around the Current River Hills sub-region. Green shading show areas where shortleaf pine was a dominate overstory species.

Figure 18. Early shortleaf pine logging the Missouri Ozarks. Photo credit: Missouri Department of Conservation.

Figure 19. Absence of fire on a shortleaf pine site with encroaching hardwoods. Photo credit: Forest Service

Figure 20. Restoration efforts using prescribed fire on a shortleaf pine site to reduce encroaching hardwoods. Photo credit: Forest Service

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

T1A	-	High grading/clearcutting; uncontrolled grazing; fire suppression
T1B	-	Silvicultural management, including possible planting of shortleaf pine and hardwood competition control
T2A	-	Land clearing; pasture planting; grazing
T2B	-	Clearcutting; seeding or planting of shortleaf pine and associated hardwood competition control
T2C	-	Long-term succession (50+ years) and silvicultural management to favor establishment of white and post oaks
T3A	-	Grazing excluded; long-term succession (50+ years)
T3B	-	Planting of desireable oaks; silvicultural management including thinning; long-term succession (50+ years)
T4A	-	Silvicultural management to establish a new cohort, including possible planting of shortleaf pine and hardwood competition control
R5A	-	Long-term silvicultural management, including shortleaf pine planting and hardwood competition control, to create a mosaic of age cohorts under a regime of frequent prescribed fire
T5A	-	Planting of shortleaf pine and associated hardwood competition control
R6A	-	Long-term silvicultural management to create a mosaic of age cohorts under a regime of frequent prescribed fire
T6A	-	Clearcutting; planting of shortleaf pine and associated hardwood competition control
T6B	-	Clearcutting

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Shortleaf Pine-Oak Closed-Canopy Woodland

1.2. Shortleaf Pine-Oak Open-Canopy Woodland

1.3. Shortleaf Pine-Oak Shrub Barrens

1.1A	-	Increased fire frequency
1.2A	-	Reduced fire frequency
1.2B	-	Canopy-opening disturbance (e.g., high-severity fire or blowdown event)
1.3A	-	Periodic recruitment of shortleaf pine and oaks, perhaps during a slightly longer interval between fires

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Ruderal Red Oak Group Forest

2.2. Declining Red Oak Group Forest

2.1A	-	Succession in the absence of management
2.2A	-	High grading/clearcutting; uncontrolled grazing; fire suppression

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Grassland/Savanna Pasture

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Shortleaf Pine Plantation

State 5 submodel, plant communities

5.1. Managed Oak Forest

5.2. Managed Oak Woodland

5.1A	-	Thinning; frequent prescribed fire
5.2A	-	Cessation of prescribed fire

State 6 submodel, plant communities

6.1. Managed Shortleaf Pine-Oak Forest

6.2. Managed Shortleaf Pine-Oak Woodland

6.1A	-	Thinning; frequent prescribed fire
6.2A	-	Cessation of prescribed fire

State 1
Reference State

The historical reference state for this ecological site is a pine woodland. The reference state is dominated by shortleaf pine with scattered post oak, black oak, and scarlet oak. Periodic disturbances from fire, wind or ice, and native grazers maintained the woodland structure and diverse ground flora species. Long disturbance-free periods allowed an increase in both the density of trees and the abundance of shade tolerant species. Two community phases are recognized in the reference state, with shifts between phases based on fire frequency.

Dominant plant species

bristly oxtongue (Picris echioides), tree
post oak (Quercus stellata), tree
scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), tree
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), tree
mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa), tree
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
black hickory (Carya texana), tree
sassafras (Sassafras albidum), tree
leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus), shrub
fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), shrub
Blue Ridge blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum), shrub
farkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
hairy woodland brome (Bromus pubescens), grass
whitetinge sedge (Carex albicans), grass
oval-leaf sedge (Carex cephalophora), grass
fuzzy wuzzy sedge (Carex hirsutella), grass
Muhlenberg's sedge (Carex muehlenbergii), grass
Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica), grass
reflexed sedge (Carex retroflexa), grass
poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), grass
cypress panicgrass (Dichanthelium dichotomum), grass
whitehair rosette grass (Dichanthelium villosissimum), grass
southeastern wildrye (Elymus glabriflorus), grass
eastern bottlebrush grass (Elymus hystrix), grass
Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus), grass
rock muhly (Muhlenbergia sobolifera), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
roundstem false foxglove (Agalinis gattingeri), other herbaceous
slenderleaf false foxglove (Agalinis tenuifolia), other herbaceous
Virginia snakeroot (Aristolochia serpentaria), other herbaceous
fourleaf milkweed (Asclepias quadrifolia), other herbaceous
smooth yellow false foxglove (Aureolaria flava), other herbaceous
low false bindweed (Calystegia spithamaea), other herbaceous
Atlantic pigeonwings (Clitoria mariana), other herbaceous
stiff tickseed (Coreopsis palmata), other herbaceous
pointedleaf ticktrefoil (Desmodium glutinosum), other herbaceous
smooth small-leaf ticktrefoil (Desmodium marilandicum), other herbaceous
nakedflower ticktrefoil (Desmodium nudiflorum), other herbaceous
Nuttall's ticktrefoil (Desmodium nuttallii), other herbaceous
eastern purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea), other herbaceous
button eryngo (Eryngium yuccifolium), other herbaceous
Arkansas bedstraw (Galium arkansanum), other herbaceous
hairy bedstraw (Galium pilosum), other herbaceous
bearded skeletongrass (Gymnopogon ambiguus), other herbaceous
hairy sunflower (Helianthus hirsutus), other herbaceous
queendevil (Hieracium gronovii), other herbaceous
longleaf summer bluet (Houstonia longifolia), other herbaceous
St. Andrew's cross (Hypericum hypericoides), other herbaceous
flaxleaf whitetop aster (Ionactis linariifolius), other herbaceous
hairy pinweed (Lechea mucronata), other herbaceous

Community 1.1
Shortleaf Pine-Oak Closed-Canopy Woodland

Shortleaf Pine-Post Oak/Blueberry species

Community 1.2
Shortleaf Pine-Oak Open-Canopy Woodland

Shortleaf Pine-Post Oak/Blueberry species-Little Bluestem

Community 1.3
Shortleaf Pine-Oak Shrub Barrens

Blueberry species-Little Bluestem-Shortleaf Pine-Post Oak

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Increased fire frequency

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Reduced fire frequency

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Canopy-opening disturbance (e.g., high-severity fire or blowdown event)

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Periodic recruitment of shortleaf pine and oaks, perhaps during a slightly longer interval between fires

State 2
High-Graded, Grazed Forest

Ecological sites subjected to repeated, high-grading timber harvests and uncontrolled domestic grazing transition to this state. This state exhibits an over-abundance of hickory and other less desirable tree species, and invasive understory species such as coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), gooseberry (Ribes missouriense), poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia). The vegetation offers little nutritional value for cattle, and excessive stocking damages tree boles, degrades understory species composition and results in soil compaction and accelerated erosion and runoff. This state can be transitioned to a grassland state through clearing and grassland planting or to a pine plantation through clearing, tree planting and fire control

Dominant plant species

black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), tree
black hickory (Carya texana), tree

Community 2.1
Ruderal Red Oak Group Forest

Black Oak-Scarlet Oak-Black Hickory

Community 2.2
Declining Red Oak Group Forest

Black Oak-Scarlet Oak-Black Hickory

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Succession in the absence of management

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

High grading/clearcutting; uncontrolled grazing; fire suppression

State 3
Agricultural Grassland

Conversion of woodlands to non-native cool season grassland species such as tall fescue has been common. Low available water, abundant surface fragments, low organic matter contents and soil acidity make non-native grasslands difficult to maintain in a healthy, productive state on this ecological site. Occasionally, these pastures will have scattered tall, mature pine or oak. If grazing and pasture management is discontinued, the site will eventually transition to state 2. Forest stand improvement and tree planting practices can help expedite this transition.

Dominant plant species

tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass

Community 3.1
Grassland/Savanna Pasture

Tall Fescue-Broomsedge

State 4
Pine Plantation

Several areas were planted to plantations of shortleaf pine from the 1940’s to the early 1960’s. They are now mature plantations that are usually a monoculture of a dense pine overstory with a brushy understory of oaks and hickories and a dense carpet of pine needles on the ground. They lack diversity and structure. Restoration to phase 1.2 of the reference state is a long-term prospect, going through other states that will require extensive thinning, long-term prescribed fire, brush management, and perhaps planting of native ground flora species.

Dominant plant species

shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), tree

Community 4.1
Shortleaf Pine Plantation

Shortleaf Pine

State 5
Managed Oak-Dominated

Where all the shortleaf pine was removed, this system became dominated by oaks. This state starts with a sequence of early seral mixed oak woodlands, which mature over time into forest structure. These forests tend to be rather dense, with a sparse understory and ground flora. Thinning can increase overall tree vigor and improve understory diversity. However, in the absence of fire, the diversity and cover of the ground flora is still diminished. Prescribed fire without extensive timber harvest will, over time, cause a transition to 5.2 Managed Oak Woodland (state 4). A more open structure with increased ground flora will be restored.

Dominant plant species

white oak (Quercus alba), tree
post oak (Quercus stellata), tree
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass

Community 5.1
Managed Oak Forest

White Oak-Post Oak-Black Oak

Community 5.2
Managed Oak Woodland

White Oak-Post Oak-Black Oak/Little Bluestem

Pathway 5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2

Thinning; frequent prescribed fire

Pathway 5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.1

Cessation of prescribed fire

State 6
Managed Pine-Oak Mixedwood

Where some shortleaf pine and associated biota remained after harvesting, this state may occur. The Managed Pine-Oak Mixedwood state results from managing with selective thinning and/or prescribed fire. While mature pines let more light to the ground than oak, these woodlands tend to be rather dense, with a low diversity understory and ground flora, due to an increase in oak and hickory density. Thinning can increase overall tree vigor, open the canopy, and improve understory diversity. Adding prescribed burning to overstory thinning can develop a more open structure with abundant ground flora. But without managing for shortleaf pine and possible re-planting or seeding of shortleaf pine, this state will not return to the reference state. In addition, it will take time to recover older maximum tree ages and ground flora diversity and cover.

Dominant plant species

shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), tree
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
post oak (Quercus stellata), tree
blueberry (Vaccinium), shrub

Community 6.1
Managed Shortleaf Pine-Oak Forest

Shortleaf Pine-Black Oak-Post Oak/Blueberry species

Community 6.2
Managed Shortleaf Pine-Oak Woodland

Shortleaf Pine-Post Oak/Blueberry species

Pathway 6.1A
Community 6.1 to 6.2

Thinning; frequent prescribed fire

Pathway 6.2A
Community 6.2 to 6.1

Cessation of prescribed fire

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

High grading/clearcutting; uncontrolled grazing; fire suppression

Transition T1B
State 1 to 6

Silvicultural management, including possible planting of shortleaf pine and hardwood competition control

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Land clearing; pasture planting; grazing

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

Clearcutting; seeding or planting of shortleaf pine and associated hardwood competition control

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

Long-term succession (50+ years) and silvicultural management to favor establishment of white and post oaks

Restoration pathway T3A
State 3 to 2

Grazing excluded; long-term succession (50+ years)

Transition T3B
State 3 to 5

Planting of desireable oaks; silvicultural management including thinning; long-term succession (50+ years)

Transition T4A
State 4 to 6

Silvicultural management to establish a new cohort, including possible planting of shortleaf pine and hardwood competition control

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 1

Long-term silvicultural management, including shortleaf pine planting and hardwood competition control, to create a mosaic of age cohorts under a regime of frequent prescribed fire

Transition T5A
State 5 to 6

Planting of shortleaf pine and associated hardwood competition control

Restoration pathway R6A
State 6 to 1

Long-term silvicultural management to create a mosaic of age cohorts under a regime of frequent prescribed fire

Restoration pathway T6A
State 6 to 4

Clearcutting; planting of shortleaf pine and associated hardwood competition control

Restoration pathway T6B
State 6 to 5

Clearcutting

Additional community tables

Interpretations

Animal community

Wildlife (MDC, 2006)
• Numerous native legumes provide high-quality wildlife food; scattered shrubs provide soft mast. Sedges and native grasses provide green browse; native grasses provide cover and nesting habitat and a diversity of forbs provides a diversity and abundance of insects.
• Post-burn areas can provide temporary bare-ground – herbaceous cover habitat important for turkey poults and quail chicks.
• Bird species associated with early-successional pine and pine-oak woodlands are Prairie Warbler, Field Sparrow, Brown Thrasher, White-eyed Vireo, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, Yellow-breasted Chat, Indigo Bunting, Eastern Towhee, Bachman’s Sparrow (historically), and Northern Bobwhite.
• Bird species associated with mid-successional pine and pine-oak woodlands include Carolina Chickadee, Pine Warbler, and Northern Bobwhite. Bird species associated with late-successional pine and pine-oak woodlands are Carolina Chickadee, Great Crested Flycatcher, Pine Warbler, White-breasted Nuthatch, Cooper’s Hawk, Yellow-throated Warbler, Summer Tanager, Black-and-white Warbler, Red-cockaded Woodpecker (historically), Brown-headed Nuthatch (historically), and Northern Bobwhite.
• Reptile and amphibian species associated with pine and pine-oak woodlands include ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata ornata), eastern fence lizard (Sceloporus undulatus), five-lined skink (Plestiodon fasciatus), broad-headed skink (Plestiodon laticeps), six-lined racerunner (Aspidoscelis sexlineata), rough earth snake (Haldea striatula), and timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus).

Wood products

Forestry
• Management: Field collected site index values (base age, 50 years) for this ecological site average 56 feet for shortleaf pine, 60 feet for black oak, and 56 feet for white oak. Timber management opportunities are moderate. Create group openings of at least 2 acres. Large clearcuts should be minimized if possible, to reduce impacts on wildlife and aesthetics. Group selection cuttings, or crop tree release are other options that can be used if clear cutting is not desired or warranted. Using prescribed fire is an effective management tool (NRCS, 2014).

• Limitations: Large amounts of coarse fragments throughout profile; bedrock may be within 60 inches. Surface stones and rocks are problems for efficient and safe equipment operation and will make equipment use somewhat difficult. Disturbing the surface excessively in harvesting operations and building roads increases soil losses, which leaves a greater volume of coarse fragments on the surface. Hand planting or direct seeding may be necessary. Seedling mortality due to low available water capacity may be high. Mulching or providing shade can improve seedling survival. Mechanical tree planting will be limited. Erosion is a hazard when slopes exceed 15 percent. On steep slopes greater than 35 percent, traction problems increase, and equipment use is not recommended (NRCS, 2002).

Supporting information

Inventory data references

This PESD is supported by Tier 1 and Tier 2 data collected by NRCS, Missouri Department of Conservation, and US Forest Service

Other references

Terrestrial Natural Community Type in Missouri: The reference state for this ecological site is most like a Dry Chert Woodland; Community Variation and Subtype: shortleaf pine, post oak/lowbush blueberry (Nelson, 2010).

Missouri Department of Conservation Forest and Woodland Communities: The reference state for this ecological site is most like a Pine Oak Woodland in the historic pine range (MDC, 2006).

National Vegetation Classification System Vegetation Association: The reference state for this ecological site is most like Shortleaf Pine–Post Oak–Blackjack Oak–Little Bluestem Woodland (Pinus echinata - Quercus stellata - Quercus marilandica / Schizachyrium scoparium Woodland) (CEGL002393) (NatureServe, 2010).

LANDFIRE Biophysical Setting Reference Conditions: Ozark Ouachita Shortleaf Pine Bluestem Woodland. BsP 441507 (LANDFIRE, 2008).

Atlas of Missouri Ecoregions: This ecological site is widespread across the Ozark Highlands Section, Current River Hills subsection, OZ9a Current River Pine-Oak Woodland Dissected Plain Landtype Association (Nigh and Schroeder, 2002).

Forest Service Desired Conditions for Natural Community Types by Management Prescription: Shortleaf Pine/Oak/Bluestem (Open); Dry and Dry-mesic Chert Woodland (Forest Service, 2005).

Anderson, R. C. 1990. The historic role of fire in North American grasslands. Pp. 8-18 in S.L. Collins and L.L. Wallace (Eds.). Fire in North American tallgrass prairies. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.

Anderson, R. C. 2006. Evolution and Origin of the Central Grassland of North America: Climate, Fire, and Mammalian Grazers. The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society Vol. 133, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec. 2006), pp. 626-647.

Bailey, R. G. 1995. Description of the Ecoregions of the United States. 2nd ed. rev. and expanded (1st ed. 1980). Misc. Pub. No. 1391 (rev.). Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service.

Barnett, J. P. and J. C. Brissette. 2007. Regenerating Shortleaf Pine: Results of a 5-Year Cooperative Research Initiative. In: Kabrick, John M.; Dey, Daniel C.; Gwaze, David, eds. Shortleaf pine restoration and ecology in the Ozarks: proceedings of a symposium. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-15. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 105-111.

Batek, M. J., A. J. Rebertus, W. A. Schroeder, T. L. Haithcoat, E. Compas, and R. P. Guyette. 1999. Reconstruction of early nineteenth-century vegetation and fire regimes in the Missouri Ozarks. Journal of Biogeography 26:397-412.

Blizzard, E. M., D. R. Larsen, D. C. Dey, J. M. Kabrick, and D. Gwaze. 2007. The State of Mixed Shortleaf Pine - Upland Oak Management in Missouri. In: Kabrick, John M.; Dey, Daniel C.; Gwaze, David, eds. Shortleaf pine restoration and ecology in the Ozarks: proceedings of a symposium. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-15. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 153-157.

Brinkman, K. A. and R. C. Smith. 1968. Managing Shortleaf Pine in Missouri. Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Missouri – Columbia, SB875.

Cunningham, R. and C. Hauser. 1989. The decline of the Missouri Ozark forest between 1880 and 1920. In: Waldrop, T.A., eds. Proceedings, Pine-hardwoods mixtures: a symposium on management and ecology of the type; 1989 April 18-19; Atlanta, GA: Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-58. Asheville, NC: U.S Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 34-37.

Fletcher, P. W. and R. E. McDermott. 1957. Influence of Geologic Parent Material and Climate on Distribution of Shortleaf Pine in Missouri. University of Missouri, Research Bulletin 625.

Guyette, R. P. 1996b. A tree-ring history of wildland fire in the Current River watershed. Fire history report. Jefferson City, MO: Missouri Department of Conservation.

Guyette, R. P. and D. C. Dey. 1997. Historic Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) Abundance and Fire Frequency in a Mixed Oak - Pine Forest (MOFEP, Site 8). In: Brookshire, Brian L. Shifley, Stephen R., eds. Proceedings of the Missouri Ozark Forest Ecosystem Project Symposium: an experimental approach to landscape research; General Technical Report NC-193. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station: 136-149.

Guyette, R. P., R. Muzika, and S. L. Voelker. 2007. The Historical Ecology of Fire, Climate, and the Decline of Shortleaf Pine in the Ozarks. In: Kabrick, John M.; Dey, Daniel C.; Gwaze, David, eds. Shortleaf pine restoration and ecology in the Ozarks: proceedings of a symposium. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-15. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 8-18.

Harlan, J. D., T. A. Nigh and W. A. Schroeder. 2001. The Missouri original General Land Office survey notes project. University of Missouri, Columbia.

Kisvarsanyi, G.and E. B. Kisvarsanyi. 1976. Structural Lineaments and Mineralization in Southeast Missouri. In: E. B. Kisvarsanyi, ed. Studies in Precambrian Geology of Missouri with a guidebook to parts of the St. Francois Mountains. Report of Investigations 61. Missouri Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Land Survey, Rolla, Missouri: 174-183

Ladd, D. 1991. Reexamination of the role of fire in Missouri oak woodlands. Pp. 67-80 in G.V. Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

Ladd, D., B. Heumann, and P. Nelson. 2007. The Pineknot Project: Restoration of a Missouri Ozark Pinery. In: Kabrick, John M.; Dey, Daniel C.; Gwaze, David, eds. Shortleaf pine restoration and ecology in the Ozarks: proceedings of a symposium. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-15. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 204-205.

LANDFIRE. 2008. Rapid Assessment Reference Condition Model, Potential Natural Vegetation Group, Interior Highlands Oak-Hickory (Pine), R5OAHIdy. LANDFIRE 1.1.0, U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. Accessed 02 October 2016 at http://landfire.cr.usgs.gov/viewer/.

Ladd, D. and J. R. Thomas. 2015. Ecological Checklist of the Missouri Flora for Floristic Quality Assessment. Phytoneuron 2015-12: 1-274

Little, E. L., Jr. 1971. Atlas of United States Trees, Volume 1 - Conifers and Important Hardwoods: U.S. Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous Publication 1146.

Missouri Department of Conservation, 2006. Missouri Forest and Woodland Community Profiles. Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri.

Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2002. Woodland Suitability Groups. Missouri FOTG, Section II, Soil Interpretations and Reports.

Natural Resources Conservation Service. Site Index Reports. Accessed May 2014. https://esi.sc.egov.usda.gov/ESI_Forestland/pgFSWelcome.aspx

NatureServe. 2010. International Ecological Classification Standard: Terrestrial Ecological Classifications. Rapid Assessment Reference Condition Model. NatrueServe Central Databases. Arlington, VA U.S.

Nelson, P. W. 2010. The Terrestrial Natural Communities of Missouri. Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri.

Nigh, T. A., and W. A. Schroeder. 2002. Atlas of Missouri Ecoregions. Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri.

Orndorff1, R. C., D. J. Weary, and S. Sebela. 2001. Geologic Framework of the Ozarks of South-Central Missouri - Contributions to a Conceptual Model of Karst. In: Eve L. Kuniansky, editor, 2001, U.S. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4011: 18-24

Owen, M. R. and R. T. Pavlowsky. 2010. Base flow hydrology and water quality of an Ozarks spring and associated recharge area, southern Missouri, USA. Environ Earth Sci (2011) 64:169–183.

Schoolcraft, H.R. 1821. Journal of a tour into the interior of Missouri and Arkansas from Potosi, or Mine a Burton, in Missouri territory, in a southwest direction, toward the Rocky Mountains: performed in the years 1818 and 1819. Richard Phillips and Company, London.

University of Missouri Climate Center - http://climate.missouri.edu/climate.php; accessed 2014

United States Department of Agriculture. 2014. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin, USDA Handbook 296 - http://soils.usda.gov/survey/geography/mlra/; accessed 2014.

United States Department of Agriculture. 2021. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

Weary, D. J., R. W. Harrison, M. P. Wright, R. B. Jacobson, M. J. Pavich, S. A. Mahan, and D. J. Wronkiewicz. 2004. Constraints on the geological history of the karst system in southern Missouri, U.S.A. provided by radiogenic, cosmogenic and physical/chemical characteristics of doline ﬁll. Acta Carsologica, 33/2: 207-217.

Weary, D. J. and R. C. Orndorff. 2017. Geologic Context of Large Karst Springs and Caves in the Ozark National. Scenic Riverways, Missouri U.S. In: E. L. Kuniansky and L. E. Spangler, eds. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, San Antonio, Texas, May 16–18, 2017: 135-146.

Wolf, D. W. 1989. Soil Survey of Pulaski County, Missouri. U.S. Dept. of Agric. Soil Conservation Service.

Contributors

Kyle Steele
Connor Crouch
Douglas Wallace
Garrett McKee
Dennis Meinert
Justin Thomas
Gene Campbell
Mark Abney

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 5/28/2025

Acknowledgments

Kyle Steele, Soil Scientist/Ecologist, U.S. Forest Service (FS), Rolla, MO (KyleSteele@usda.gov); Connor Crouch, Research Forester, FS, Columbia, MO (Connor.Crouch@usda.gov), Douglas Wallace (retired, former NRCS ecologist), and John Kabrick, Research Forester, FS, Columbia, MO

Field Data Support – Garrett McKee, Field Ecologist, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO (mckes@missouri.edu), Dennis Meinert, Soil Scientist, dennis.meinert@outlook.com; Justin Thomas, Science Director, NatureCITE, Springfield, MO, justin.thomas@naturecite.org ; Gene Campbell, Soil Scientist, United States Department of Agriculture, Springfield, Missouri, gene.campbell@usda.gov ; Mark Abney, Soil Scientist, United States Department of Agriculture, Clinton, Missouri, mark.abney@usda.gov

Missouri Department of Conservation and NatureCITE personnel provided significant and helpful field and technical support in the development of this ecological site.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	05/28/2025
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Presence of water flow patterns:
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:

Sub-dominant:

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Perennial plant reproductive capability:

Download reference sheet

Click on box and path labels to scroll to the respective text.

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. High-Graded, Grazed Forest

3. Agricultural Grassland

4. Pine Plantation

5. Managed Oak-Dominated

6. Managed Pine-Oak Mixedwood

States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

1. Reference State

5. Managed Oak-Dominated

6. Managed Pine-Oak Mixedwood

States 2 and 5 (additional transitions)

2. High-Graded, Grazed Forest

5. Managed Oak-Dominated

T1A	-	High grading/clearcutting; uncontrolled grazing; fire suppression
T1B	-	Silvicultural management, including possible planting of shortleaf pine and hardwood competition control
T2A	-	Land clearing; pasture planting; grazing
T2B	-	Clearcutting; seeding or planting of shortleaf pine and associated hardwood competition control
T2C	-	Long-term succession (50+ years) and silvicultural management to favor establishment of white and post oaks
T3A	-	Grazing excluded; long-term succession (50+ years)
T3B	-	Planting of desireable oaks; silvicultural management including thinning; long-term succession (50+ years)
T4A	-	Silvicultural management to establish a new cohort, including possible planting of shortleaf pine and hardwood competition control
R5A	-	Long-term silvicultural management, including shortleaf pine planting and hardwood competition control, to create a mosaic of age cohorts under a regime of frequent prescribed fire
T5A	-	Planting of shortleaf pine and associated hardwood competition control
R6A	-	Long-term silvicultural management to create a mosaic of age cohorts under a regime of frequent prescribed fire
T6A	-	Clearcutting; planting of shortleaf pine and associated hardwood competition control
T6B	-	Clearcutting

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Shortleaf Pine-Oak Closed-Canopy Woodland

1.2. Shortleaf Pine-Oak Open-Canopy Woodland

1.3. Shortleaf Pine-Oak Shrub Barrens

1.1A	-	Increased fire frequency
1.2A	-	Reduced fire frequency
1.2B	-	Canopy-opening disturbance (e.g., high-severity fire or blowdown event)
1.3A	-	Periodic recruitment of shortleaf pine and oaks, perhaps during a slightly longer interval between fires