Ecological dynamics
These sites historically were oak-hickory forests and located on moderately deep soils over interbedded calcareous siltstone, sandstone, shale, and/or limestone.
ECOLOGICAL DYNAMICS
Individual sites deserve a detailed understanding before conservation and restoration practices are implemented; therefore, it should be noted that the communities described in this provisional document reflect plant communities that are likely to be found on these soils and have not been field verified. Therefore, this PES describes hypotheses based on available data of many different scales and sources and has not been developed utilizing site-specific ecological field monitoring. This PES also does not encompass the entire complexity or diversity of these sites. Field studies would be required to develop a comprehensive and science-based native plant restoration plan for these sites.
State 1. (Reference):
State 1, Phase 1.1: Plant species dominants: Quercus alba-Carya ovata/Vaccinium spp.- Cornus florida / Parthenocissus quinquefolia-Cunila origanoides
(white oak-shagbark hickory / blueberry species-flowering dogwood / Virginia creeper – common dittany)
Narrative: This community includes a variation of Braun’s western mesophytic forest type consisting of mixed oak and oak-hickory forest. The plant communities of these sites are influenced by variations in soil depth (20-40” for moderately deep soils), available water, rock content, slope, aspect and micro-topography of the hillsides. Future field work is required to determine if these mapunits can be incorporated into another existing PES grouping. The mapunits included in this project area mainly located within EPA’s Outer Bluegrass physiographic region.
Tree inventory data from NASIS (National Soil Information System) includes the following species: white oak, scarlet oak, black oak, “hybrid” hickory, white ash, sugar maple, black walnut, American elm, eastern redbud, eastern red cedar, and tulip tree. The USDA-NRCS land capability class ratings vary according to slope. The majority of mapunits in this PES range from 12-30% slopes with some mapunits as high as 50%.
Depending on soil depth, available water, and rock content, these site would be dominated by mixed oak or oak-hickory forest. On steeper slopes, the north sides would have a community containing white oak, black oak, scarlet oak, chestnut oak, shagbark hickory, pignut hickory, red maple, American elm, white ash, sassafras, redbud, and flowering dogwood. South-facing slopes and sites with shallower soils would have plant communities that reflected the resulting reduction in available water. On these sites, chestnut oak, scarlet oak, pignut hickory, and eastern redcedar would likely be prevalent. More xeric species such as Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), post oak (Quercus stellata) and blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica) could be found on the most shallow soils and steepest sites.
The density of understory species would be sparse to moderate in the reference community state and include a shrub layer consisting typically of Vaccinium spp. (blueberry) on sites with shale or siltstone influences. Because these soils have multiple parent materials (interbedded shale, siltstone, limestone, and sandstone) the corresponding floristic expressions will show variations. Plant understory differences are also to be expected between sites in northwestern Kentucky counties and the northeastern Kentucky counties. This is due to differing plant communities found within the adjacent Appalachian forest region of eastern Kentucky. For example, Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry) is found typically in the eastern Kentucky counties while Vaccinium arboreum Marshall (farkleberry) is more common in the western Knobs physiographic region. Because understory communities often varies considerably from the eastern Knobs to the western Knobs regions and on differing aspects, it is expected that future field work will clarify whether this soil grouping is really a unique ecological site or mapunits could be included within another PES grouping.
Understory species likely found on these sites include:
Agrimonia pubescens, Agrimonia parviflora, Agrimonia rostella (Agrimony)
Aster spp.
Claytonia virginica (spring beauty)
Coreopsis major (greater tickseed)
Danthonia spicata (poverty grass)
Dentaria laciniata (cut-leaf toothwort)
Doellingeria infirma (Michx.) Greene (cornel-leaf whitetop)
Epigaea repens (trailing arbutus)
Gaylussacia baccata (Wangenh.) K. Koch (black huckleberry)
Hieraceum venosum (hawkweed)
Hypericum hypericoides (L.) Crantz (St. Andrew's cross)
Krigia biflora (false dandelion)
Panic grasses (Panicum boscii, P. dichotomum)
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper)
Rhus radicans (poison ivy)
Sanicula canadensis, Sanicula odorata, Sanicula trifoliate (Snakeroot)
Sedges (including Carex digitalis, C. umbellate, C wildenovii)
Smilax rotundifolia, roundleaf greenbrier
Smilax tamnoides L. (bristly greenbrier)
Stellaria spp. (chickweed)
Tradescantia virginiana (spiderwort)
Viola spp.
Drier sites may contain:
Antennaria plantaginifolia (pussytoes)
Cunila origanoides (dittany)
Gillenia stipulacea (Indian physic)
Oxalis violacea (violet sorrel)
Houstonis caerulea (bluets)
Aureolaria virginica (downy yellow false foxglove)
Aureolaria laevigata (entireleaf yellow false foxglove)
Cunila origanoides (common dittany)
Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Virginia tephrosia or Goat’s rue
Pedicularis canadensis L. (Canadian lousewort)
State: 2. Pasture
State 2, Phase 2.1: Managed Pasture.
Plant species dominants: Schedonorus arundinaceus (tall fescue)
State 2, Phase 2.2: Minimally Managed Pasture.
Plant species dominants: Rosa multiflora- Rubus spp./Schedonorus arundinaceus
The pasture phase is feasible for lower slope sites included within this PES. Many mapunits within this PES are too steep (25-50% slopes) for use as productive pastures and should be managed as woodlands to protect soil and water resources.
Plant species within a pasture on these sites would depend on seeding, level of management post-seeding, and concurrent land uses. As with all sites, soil characteristics and management will influence production levels.
Transitioning this state to a reference condition will require management inputs including timber stand improvement practices to control non-native vegetation and long-term management to promote desired species.
State: 3 – Post Large-Scale Disturbance Forest
State 3, Phases 3.1: Post Large-Scale Disturbance Forest State.
Plant species dominants: Acer rubrum-Pinus virginiana/ Rubus spp. -Smilax spp. / Danthonia spicata-Lespedeza spp.
Tree species regeneration on these sites will depend on the severity and duration of disturbance, soil loss during disturbance, inherent soil characteristics, slope, adjacent plant communities (seed sources), post-disturbance management inputs, presence or absence of continued site disturbances (grazing, logging, etc.) and aspect.
Mapunits with shale-siltstone influences would have likely have a greater percentage of pioneer species that included red maple and Virginia pine. On mapunits influenced by limestone (versus shale or siltstone) the pioneer community would likely include more eastern red cedar and sugar maple.
Transitioning this state to a reference condition will likely require management inputs including timber stand improvement practices to control non-native vegetation and management to promote desired species.
State: 4. Abandoned Field
State 4, Phase 4.1: Plant species dominants: Pinus virginiana-Sassafras albidum /Rubus spp. – Rosa spp. /Schedonorus arundinaceus
Native trees commonly found on abandoned upland pasture sites would include: Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), sassafras (Sassafras albidum), maples (Acer rubrum, Acer saccharum, Acer negundo.), Carolina rose (Rosa caroliniana), blackberries (Rubus spp.), sumac (Rhus spp.), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), poison ivy (Campsis radicans), giant ironweed (Vernonia gigantea), crownbeard (Verbesina spp.), and joe pye weed (Eutrochium purpureum).
Over 100 species of plants have been documented on abandoned fields in the Outer Bluegrass and Knobs Regions of Kentucky. The genus-species of common early successional species likely to be found on these sites include:
Common yarrow (Achillea millefolium)
Spiny amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus L.)
Broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus)
Indianhemp or hemp dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum L.)
Common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca L.)
Eastern daisy fleabane (Erigeron annuus)
Trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. Ex Bureau)
Field thistle (Cirsium discolor (Muhl. ex Willd.) Spreng.)
Canadian horse weed (Erigeron Canadensis, SYN= Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist var. canadensis)
Cudweed or spoonleaf purple everlasting, (Gnaphalium purpureum, SYN= Gamochaeta purpurea (L.) Cabrera)
American false pennyroyal, (Hedeoma pulegioides)
Spotted St. Johnswort (Hypericum punctatum)
Canada lettuce (Lactuca Canadensis)
Lespedeza spp. Both native and non-native species may be present including hairy lespedeza (Lespedeza hirta (L.) Hornem. and sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneate)
Purple passionflower (Passiflora incarnata L.)
Common cinquefoil (Potentilla simplex)
Buttercups (Ranunculus spp.)
Winged sumac (Rhus copallina)
Blackberry (Rubus spp.). Species may include: Rubus occidentalis L., Rubus allegheniensis Porter, Rubus alumnus L.H. Bailey, Rubus flagellaris Willd., etc.
Common yellow woodsorrel, (Oxalis stricta)
Greenbrier species including saw greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox L.), cat greenbrier (Smilax glauca), and the brisley greenbrier (Smilax tamnoides).
Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense L.)
Clasping Venus looking-glass (Triodanis perfoliata (L.) Nieuwl., SYN=Specularia perfoliata)
Hairy white oldfield aster (Symphyotrichum pilosum (Willd.) G.L. Nesom var. pilosum)
Giant ironweed (Vernonia gigantea (Walter) Trel.)
Rough cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L.)
Canadian cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L. var. canadense (Mill.) Torr. & A. Gray)
Non-native vegetation may include:
Annual ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.)
Nodding plumeless thistle (Carduus nutans L.)
Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.)
Bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.)
Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum)
Canadian thistle (Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.)
Queen Anne’s lace (Daucus carota L.)
Common mallow (Malva neglecta Wallr.)
Multi-flora rose (Rosa multiflora Thunb.)
Curly dock (Rumex crispus)
Red clover (Trifolium pretense L.)
White clover (Trifolium repens L.)
Common mullein (Verbascum thapsus L.)
Grasses may include:
Redtop (Agrostis gigantea Roth)
Winter bentgrass (Agrostis hyemalispani)
Broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus)
Sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula)
Field brome (Bromus arvensis)
Soft brome (Bromus hordeaceus)
Smooth brome (Bromus inermis)
Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)
Sedges (Carex spp.)
Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata L.)
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa spp.)
Eastern bottlebrush grass (Elymus histrix)
Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus)
Fescues (Festuca spp.)
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum)
Panicgrass (Panicum spp.)
Timothy (Phleum pretense L.)
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)
Tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus)
Yellow foxtail (Setaria pumila)
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense)
Seedlings and saplings of Quercus spp., Carya spp., Acer spp, (especially red maple, sugar maple, and boxelder) Pinus spp. (commonly Virginia pine), Sassafras albidum, Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust), and Celtis occidentalis (hackberry) would be common on these successional sites.
Transitioning this state to a reference condition will require management inputs including timber stand improvement practices to control non-native vegetation and management to promote desired species.