Ecological dynamics

The information contained in the State and Transition Model (STM) and the Ecological Site Description was developed using archeological and historical data, professional experience, and scientific studies. The information presented is representative of a very complex set of plant communities. Not all scenarios or plants are included. Key indicator plants, animals and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.

The historic plant community composition of this site was relatively stable. American beech, red spruce, and hemlock are long-lived and very shade tolerant species. Red maple and sweet and yellow birch are less long lived. Natural disturbances in this community are characterized by windthrow of individual trees. Stand-replacing lightning-ignited fires may affect large patch sizes but occur rarely, at 300 to 1,000-year intervals; large-scale wind events are likely at more frequent intervals of 100 to 200 years (Gorman 2007). Beech bark disease an invasive disease has altered the plant community.

Beech bark disease (BBD), a complex affecting American beech, includes both insect and fungal components. The disease passes through three phases: the initial scale front phase, the second killing front phase, and the final aftermath forest phase. During the initial phase, the exotic scale insect disperses through the forest, causing scale-induced alterations to patches of bark. The killing front phase begins 1 to 19 years after the arrival of the scale. Throughout this phase, the scale-modified bark is killed and colonized by species of Neonectria, rendering the dead tissues vulnerable to additional decaying fungi. The resulting beech snap and mortality levels may reach 50 percent in 5 years. The final aftermath forest phase results in an ecological accommodation to the disease, resulting in either a change in species composition or the death of re-emergent beech. The genetically identical stump sprouts and root suckers (beech brush), which appear following the initial BBD deaths die in a second wave of BBD.

Historic accounts indicate that on high elevation slopes where soils are deeper and/or slightly more fertile, a mixture of hardwoods and spruce predominated (Hopkins 1899, Brooks 1910, Allard and Leonard 1952).

Spodosols develop within cool, humid climates beneath conifers and thick snow packs (Ciolkosz et al. 1989; Ugolini et al. 1990; Schaetzl and Isard 1996) Research verified Spodosol occurrence in West Virginia (Stanley and Ciolkosz 1981. Researchers have also studied Spodosols at points southward along the Appalachian Chain (Lietzke and McGuire 1987). Soils with spodic tendencies in the southern Appalachians have been recognized as early as the 1980s, leading to proposals for spodic subgroups for Dystrochrepts and Haplumbrepts (Lietzke and McGuire 1987) The current version of Soil Taxonomy (2010) reconizes these soils as Spodic Dystrudepts.

Without continuing conifer cover, the podzolization process may cease and actually reverses itself (depodzolization), causing spodic markers to disassociate overtime (Barrett and Schaetzl 1998). The shift in vegetation causes the breakdown of the coniferous litter layer, release of iron and manganese from B horizons, and increase of calcium from deciduous litter accrual (Lundstrom et al. 2000). Moreover, soil displacement (erosion) and loss of surface organic matter (O horizon) associated with past cutting and burning may have further deteriorated spodic soil characteristics.

Humus terminology used throughout the text: Mor is a type of humus, which occur largely in coniferous forest soils and the moorlands soils. This humus arise under conditions of low-biological activity in soil. The mineralization of organic matter proceeds slowly and creates layers, which maintain a structure of vegetative material. Mull is a type of humus characteristic of hardwood forests. Mull is a well humified organic matter, which is produce in very biologically active Moder is a transitional form of humus between mull and mor. The organic horizons with moder humus consist of low-thickness litter.


A State and Transition Model for the site follows this narrative. Thorough descriptions of each state, transition, plant community, and pathway follow the model. Experts base this model on available experimental research, field observations, professional consensus, and interpretations. It is likely to change as knowledge increases.

Clearcutting of mixed hardwood and conifer in the time period 1880-1920 removed a majority of the overstory, and destroyed much of the organic soil horizon and seed bank within it due to logging practices and fires common during the era. Logs where skidded across the soil and slope on cable strung from the summit of the slope to the valley floor; in some instances slash fires occurred at these sites. The new conditions exposed large areas of mineral soil that allowed the invasion of these sites by hardwood trees, especially species with heavy seed rain and seeds that spread rapidly and over long distance due to transport by wind and birds such as shade tolerant American beech and black cherry . Many areas still had remnant midstory spruce trees present and small understory spruce trees. Seeds of red spruce and hemlock typically travel a maximum of 200 meters. Red spruce and hemlock are able to re-establish in the sites canopy if a few trees remain, but the process may take hundreds of years without restoration efforts such as timber harvest, thinning, and/or herbicide application to release suppressed understory conifers. Once a trajectory of conifer co-dominate overstory is set the site will maintain a sustainable community dynamic.

The appearance of the logged states depends on tree dominance; for example both share a common dominant (or subdominant ) tree- red maple and the occurrence of subdominant red spruce and eastern hemlock in the understory. Red maple has a large seed rain, is quick to establish, shade-tolerant and is common throughout the range of this ecological site. The division between the two logged states is based upon the occurrence of subdominant American beech or black cherry in the respective states. Sites with a history of soil erosion exposing extensive areas of mineral soil or burning often have higher overstory canopy cover of black cherry. Sites with relatively less disturbance have higher overstory canopy cover occurrence of beech.

The logged and burned states are areas that experienced intense logging slash fires caused by railroad sparks and negligent fire management. One site scenario may represent a situation of a burned conifer forest on a Spodosol that was sent on an entirely new vegetation trajectory and an entirely different soil was formed through depozolization. An alternative scenario is a site with weakly expressed podzolization (spodic dystrudept). The division between the two states is based upon the occurrence of subdominant American beech or black cherry in the respective states. Like the logged states the vegetative community develops in response to the severity of disturbance.

Many of severely burned locations and abandoned marginal farmland were re-vegetated with conifer plantations during the depression until World War II by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the United States Forest Service (USFS). These areas were planted to prevent soil erosion and to provide timber products and wildlife habitat. The current condition of these areas is a plantation of mature even aged Norway spruce and occasional plantations of red and/or white pine timber. These species are not endemic to the ecological site area and have created an artificial ecological condition.


Plant communities will differ across the MLRA because of the naturally occurring variability in weather, soils, and aspect. The Reference Plant Community is not necessarily the management goal. The biological processes on this site are complex. Therefore, representative values are presented in a land management context. The species lists are representative and are not botanical descriptions of all species occurring, or potentially occurring, on this site. They are not intended to cover every situation or the full range of conditions, species, and responses for the site.

The following diagram suggests some pathways that the vegetation on this site might take. There may be other states not shown on the diagram. This information is intended to show what might happen in a given set of circumstances. It does not mean that this would happen the same way in every instance. Local professional guidance should always be sought before pursuing a treatment scenario.