State 1
Reference Forest

The reference state is a combination of several vegetation communities within the Central Appalachian Dry Oak-Pine Forest and the Northeastern Interior Dry-Mesic Oak Forest as defined by NatureServe (NatureServe 2009). The forest is mostly closed-canopy but can include patches of more open woodlands. The coarse, acidic, well drained soils, will host a variable mixture of dry-site oak and pine species. Heath shrubs are common in the understory. Convex, shallow, exposed ridgetop, and rocky areas will tend to have more open canopies and will include pine species and herbaceous species that tolerate very dry conditions. The communities listed below have been documented on this ecological site and are associated with the Northern Blue Ridge. Due to the heterogeneity and the broadness of this provisional ecological unit, they are not intended to cover every situation or the full range of conditions and species for this site. There are no transition pathways designated between the three communities in the reference state because the differences in vegetation is more controlled by landscape position than management or disturbance.

Community 1.1
Quercus alba - Quercus prinus - Carya glabra / Cornus florida / Vaccinium pallidum Forest

The Black Cherry - Tuliptree - Red Maple - White Ash - (Black Locust) Ruderal Forest (CEGL006599; NatureServe 2017) is an early-successional woody vegetation community of the northeastern United States that occurs on sites that are becoming reforested after having been cleared for agriculture or The White Oak - Chestnut Oak - Pignut Hickory / Flowering Dogwood / Blue Ridge Blueberry Forest also known as the Central Appalachian Acidic Oak – Hickory Forest (CEGL008515; NatureServe 2017) is associated with a belt of metasedimentary rocks that overlie the plutonic basement complex on the western side of the Northern Blue Ridge. Habitats encompass dry, mostly southeast- to west-facing slopes, hollows, broad sub-level ridge crests, and occasionally dry valley bottoms at low elevations, mostly less than 2000 feet (610 m). Slope shape is generally convex in at least one direction. The characteristic vegetation of this type is an open oak-hickory or oak-hickory-pine forest dominated by oaks, particularly Quercus prinus (Chestnut oak) and Quercus alba (White oak), with high cover of hickory species especially Carya glabra (Pignut hickory). Quercus velutina (Black oak), Quercus rubra (Northern red oak), Carya tomentosa (mockernut hickory), Pinus virginiana (Virginia pine), and Pinus strobus (Eastern white pine) are also important, sometimes codominant trees. Stands in which Quercus alba (White oak) greatly dominates are also common. Minor canopy associates include Carya ovalis (Red hickory), Pinus echinata (Shortleaf pine), Quercus coccinea (Scarlet oak) and Quercus stellate (Post oak). Young representatives of most canopy species are common in the understory, along with Cornus florida (Flowering dogwood) and Amelanchier arborea (Common serviceberry). Generally, there is only a moderate to sparse representation of ericaceous (heath family) shrubs in this community type. However, on gentle ridge crests, where litter and humus tend to accumulate, Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry) may dominate the shrub layer in low colonies.

Community 1.2
Quercus prinus - Quercus rubra - Carya ovalis / Carex pensylvanica - (Calamagrostis porteri) Forest

The Chestnut Oak - Northern Red Oak - Red Hickory / Pennsylvania Sedge - (Porter's Reedgrass) Forest also known as the Central Appalachian Montane Oak – Hickory Forest (Acidic Type) (CEGL008516; NatureServe 2017) usually occupies middle to upper slopes and narrow ridge crests underlain by various sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, including sandstone, quartzite, siltstone, metasiltstone, phyllite, and acidic shale. This association occurs at elevations ranging from 2000 to 4160 feet (550-1270 m). This association has an open, mixed canopy dominated by several oaks and hickories. Trees tend to be slightly stunted, often less than 66 feet tall (20 m), on the drier and more exposed sites. Quercus rubra (Northern red oak), Quercus prinus (Chestnut oak) and Carya ovalis (Red hickory), are the most abundant canopy species, but Quercus alba (White oak) is a constant minor associate that becomes more abundant and replaces Quercus prinus at the highest elevations. Carya ovata (Shagbark hickory), Carya glabra (Pignut hickory), Fraxinus Americana (White ash), and Quercus velutina (Black oak) are minor overstory associates. The subcanopy tends to be strongly dominated by Carya ovalis (Red hickory). Lower understory layers tend to be open or sparse with scattered Ostrya virginiana (hophornbeam), Crataegus macrosperma (Bigfruit hawthorn), Amelanchier arborea (Common serviceberry), Acer pensylvanicum (Striped maple) and tree saplings. Vaccinium stamineum (Deerberry), Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry), Rosa Carolina (Carolina rose), and Spiraea betulifolia var. corymbosa (Shiny leaf meadowsweet) commonly form a patchy low-shrub layer. The herb layer is open but moderately diverse with drought-tolerant graminoids and forbs.

Community 1.3
Quercus prinus - Quercus rubra / Vaccinium pallidum - (Rhododendron periclymenoides) Forest

The Chestnut Oak - Northern Red Oak / Blue Ridge Blueberry - (Pink Azalea) Forest also known as the Central Appalachian Dry Chestnut Oak - Northern Red Oak / Heath Forest (CEGL008523; NatureServe 2017) occurs on chiefly convex, moderately steep middle to upper slopes, ridge crests, and boulderfields with southeastern to northwestern exposures. Soils are dry and infertile. This association spans a very broad range of elevations, from 1000 to 3600 feet (300 - 1100m). Quercus prinus (Chestnut oak) and Quercus rubra (Northern red oak) generally codominate the overstory, but either species may dominate discrete areas within stands. Minor canopy associates include Quercus velutina (Black oak), Quercus alba (White oak), Betula lenta (Sweet birch), Carya spp. (Hickory species), Robinia pseudoacacia (Black locust), and Pinus strobus (Eastern white pine). Acer rubrum (Red maple) cover may equal or exceed that of the diagnostic oak species in stands with recent harvesting. The shrub layer is dominated by patchy Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry), Vaccinium stamineum (Deerberry), Rhododendron periclymenoides (Pink azalea), and Kalmia latifolia (Mountain laurel), Acer pensylvanicum (Striped maple) and Smilax rotundifolia (Roundleaf greenbriar) may be present in minor amounts. A suite of low-cover, xerophytic (survives in very dry areas) herbs is characteristic, including Houstonia longifolia (Longleaf summer bluet), Campanula divaricate (Small bonnybellflower), Potentilla Canadensis (Dwarf cinquefoil), Lysimachia quadrifolia (Whorled yellow loosestrife), Carex pensylvanica (Pennsylvania sedge), Aureolaria laevigata (Entireleaf yellow false foxglove), and Hieracium paniculatum (Allegheny hawkweed).

State 2
Post Logging - Fire Excluded

Community 2.1
Quercus spp. – Carya spp. Post logging fire excluded forest

The existence of this alternative state is assumed based on the history of the Appalachians and field work in similar landscapes within the neighboring Ridge and Valley Province. The post logging, fire excluded oak – hickory forests (similar to CEGL008515; NatureServe 2017) are similar to the reference state with the exception that overall species diversity is less, trees are even-aged due to logging. Sites are invaded by Rosa Multiflora (multiflora rose), Lonicera spp. (honeysuckle), and other herbaceous invasive species. Pinus strobus (eastern white pine) and Pinus virginiana (Virginia pine) may be part of the canopy as well. Early successional species like Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust), Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Acer rubrum (red maple), and Prunus serotina (black cherry) are also present.

State 3
Agricultural - Pasture

Community 3.1
Dactylis glomerata - Festuca spp. - Solidago canadensis Ruderal Mesic Meadow Alliance

The Orchardgrass - Fescue species - Canada Goldenrod Ruderal Mesic Meadow Alliance (A1190, NatureServe 2017) is a broadly defined community which includes mesic abandoned pastures and agricultural fields and is largely composed of non-native cool-season grasses and herbs (generally of European origin) in the early stages of succession. Species composition varies from site to site, depending on land-use history and perhaps soil type, but in general this vegetation is quite wide-ranging in northeastern and midwestern states. Dominant grasses vary from site to site but generally include the exotic grasses Agrostis stolonifera (Creeping bentgrass), Agrostis hyemalis (Winter bentgrass), Anthoxanthum odoratum, (Sweet vernalgrass), Bromus inermis (Smooth Brome), Bromus tectorum (Cheatgrass), Dactylis glomerata (Orchardgrass), Schedonorus arundinaceum (Tall fescue), Lolium perenne (Perennial ryegrass), Phleum pretense(Timothy) as well as weedy natives such as Elymus repens (Quackgrass), Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass), and, less commonly, Schizachyrium scoparium (Little bluestem). Herbaceous species may be minor or dominant and include various Solidago spp. (goldenrods), Sympyotrichum spp. (Asters), and other native and non-native species. Less than 2% of this provisional ecological site is in pasture and hayland (Landfire, 2013).

State 4
Transitional Invaded Woodland or Forest

Community 4.1
Pinus spp. Ruderal Forest

The Mixed Pine Ruderal Forests (similar to CEGL002591; NatureServe 2017), composed of Pinus species, especially Pinus echinata (Shortleaf pine), Pinus strobus (White pine), and Pinus virginiana (Virginia pine) occur on old fields (often from abandoned farmland), old pastures, clearcuts, and eroded areas. Soils are typically dry, acidic, and infertile. This forest typically has a very dense canopy of Virginia pine and little understory vegetation. The dense canopy may also include admixtures of other Pinus species (e.g., Pinus taeda (Loblolly pine), Pinus echinata (Shortleaf pine), Pinus rigida (Pitch pine), Pinus strobus (Eastern white pine) or other early-successional deciduous trees (e.g., Acer rubrum (Red maple), Liquidambar styraciflua (Sweetgum), Prunus serotina (Black cherry), Liriodendron tulipifera (Tuliptree), Fraxinus Americana (White ash), Nyssa sylvatica (Black gum). Associated woody and herbaceous species vary with geography but are typically ruderal or exotic species. Shrub and herb layers are frequently very sparse. Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle) and Rosa multiflora (Mulriflora rose) are common. The herb layer is characterized by weedy natives and exotics such as Lycopodium digitatum (Fan clubmoss), Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis (Western yarrow), Hieracium caespitosum (Meadow hawkweed), and Lespedeza cuneate (Sericea lespedeza). Approximately 13% of this provisional ecological site is ruderal forest.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Logging, but no agricultural conversion. Trees are allowed to stump sprout, soil is minimally disturbed, seed bank remains. Fire suppression allows fire sensitive species like tuliptree and red maple to out compete oak seedlings in the understory. Proximity to more highly disturbed areas provides source of nonnative invasive species to gain a foothold in the understory.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 3

Logging, clearing, and then planting of non-native pasture grass mixes, and grazing. Maintenance with periodic mowing to prevent trees and shrubs from establishing.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

Logging followed by agricultural conversion. Soil surface is disturbed by tillage or clearing of tree stumps and vegetation, and allows colonization by successional species. Field is then abandoned. If surrounding forests are still intact, they can provide native seed sources. If surrounding forests are not intact, or area is surrounded by agriculture, or other human development, nonnative species may become dominant.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Control of understory to allow oak seedling recruitment. Prescribed fire will further advance the growth of oaks over fire sensitive species.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Logging, clearing, and then planting of non-native pasture grass mixes, and grazing. Maintenance with periodic mowing to prevent trees and shrubs from establishing.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

Logging followed by agricultural conversion. Soil surface is disturbed by tillage or clearing of tree stumps and vegetation, and allows colonization by successional species. Field is then abandoned. If surrounding forests are still intact, they can provide native seed sources. If surrounding forests are not intact, or area is surrounded by agriculture, or other human development, nonnative species may become dominant.

Transition R3A
State 3 to 2

Return to the reference or post logged minimally managed state may require a very long term series of costly management options and stages. Many species may need to be planted or seeded to restore the system. If using acorns, direct seeding must be done fairly heavily. Herbivory can be a problem as well as competition from faster growing species. Depending on the existing seed bank and the proximity of a mature forest from which to recruit seeds, ruderal forests may regain a mixed forest stand. Nevertheless, sites that have been cleared and tilled have significant soil disturbance which may include compaction, erosion, loss of native soil structure, loss of soil organic matter, disruption of soil microorganisms, all which affect the soil’s nutrient availability and water holding capacity (Duiker and Myers, 2005). These characteristics favor recolonization by plant species that have wind dispersed seeds (verses those that propogate through underground roots called rhizomes, or which have heavy seeds that stay near the parent tree), are shade intolerant, have rapid to moderate growth rates, and drought tolerance. These communities are distinctly different from the reference forest state (Dyer, 2010).

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

Abandonment of pasture or old field. Discontinue mowing and do not allow grazing. Allow natural regeneration.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

Return to the reference or post logged minimally managed state may require a very long term series of costly management options and stages. Many species may need to be planted or seeded to restore the system. If using acorns, direct seeding must be done fairly heavily. Herbivory can be a problem as well as competition from faster growing species. Depending on the existing seed bank and the proximity of a mature forest from which to recruit seeds, ruderal forests may regain a mixed forest stand. Nevertheless, sites that have been cleared and tilled have significant soil disturbance which may include compaction, erosion, loss of native soil structure, loss of soil organic matter, disruption of soil microorganisms, all which affect the soil’s nutrient availability and water holding capacity (Duiker and Myers, 2005). These characteristics favor recolonization by plant species that have wind dispersed seeds (verses those that propagate through underground roots called rhizomes, or which have heavy seeds that stay near the parent tree), are shade intolerant, have rapid to moderate growth rates, and drought tolerance. These communities are distinctly different from the reference forest state (Dyer, 2010).

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2

Return to the reference or post logged minimally managed state may require a very long term series of costly management options and stages. Many species may need to be planted or seeded to restore the system. If using acorns, direct seeding must be done fairly heavily. Herbivory can be a problem as well as competition from faster growing species. Depending on the existing seed bank and the proximity of a mature forest from which to recruit seeds, ruderal forests may regain a mixed forest stand. Nevertheless, sites that have been cleared and tilled have significant soil disturbance which may include compaction, erosion, loss of native soil structure, loss of soil organic matter, disruption of soil microorganisms, all which affect the soil’s nutrient availability and water holding capacity (Duiker and Myers, 2005). These characteristics favor recolonization by plant species that have wind dispersed seeds (verses those that propagate through underground roots called rhizomes, or which have heavy seeds that stay near the parent tree), are shade intolerant, have rapid to moderate growth rates, and drought tolerance. These communities are distinctly different from the reference forest state (Dyer, 2010).

Transition T4A
State 4 to 3

Logging, clearing, and then planting of non-native pasture grass mixes, and grazing. Maintenance with periodic mowing to prevent trees and shrubs from establishing.