State 1
Reference

The reference state is a combination of several vegetation communities within the Central Appalachian Dry Oak-Pine Forest, the Northeastern Interior Dry-Mesic Oak Forest, and the Central Appalachian Pine-Oak Rocky Woodland Forest Systems as defined by NatureServe (NatureServe 2009). These forests are mostly closed-canopy but can include patches of more open woodlands and grasslands. The coarse, acidic, well drained soils, will host a variable mixture of dry-site oak and pine species. Heath shrubs are common in the understory. Convex, shallow, exposed ridgetop, and rocky areas will tend to have more open canopies and will include pine species and herbaceous species that tolerate very dry conditions. The reference communities listed below have been documented on this ecological site and are associated with the Northern Blue Ridge. Due to the heterogeneity and the broadness of this provisional ecological unit, they are not intended to cover every situation or the full range of conditions and species for this site. There are no transition pathways designated between the three communities in the reference state because the differences in vegetation are more controlled by landscape position than management or disturbance.

Community 1.1
Quercus prinus - (Quercus coccinea, Quercus rubra) / Kalmia latifolia / Vaccinium pallidum Forest

The Chestnut Oak - (Scarlet Oak, Northern Red Oak) / Mountain Laurel / Blue Ridge Blueberry Forest, also known as the Central Appalachian-Northern Piedmont Chestnut Oak Forest (CEGL006299; NatureServe 2017), occurs at relatively low elevations, mostly less than 2950 feet (900 m) in the Central Appalachians and adjacent areas (e.g., northern Piedmont and Ridge and Valley) and is well documented on this landscape. This community can be readily identified by its dry, infertile, sandy loam soils, and species-poor vegetation overwhelmingly dominated by Quercus prinus (Chestnut oak) and Kalmia latifolia (Mountain laurel) often with Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry). The canopy, which may be rather short, is strongly dominated by Quercus prinus (Chestnut oak). The most characteristic canopy associates are Quercus coccinea (Scarlet oak), which varies from sparse to codominant, and Quercus rubra (Northern red oak). Minor associates frequently include Quercus velutina (Black oak), Quercus alba (White oak), Nyssa sylvatica (Sourgum), Sassafras albidum (Sassafras), and/or Robinia pseudoacacia (Black locust). Root sprouts of Castanea dentata (American chestnut) are present in some areas. Acer rubrum (Red maple) and Nyssa sylvatica (Sourgum) are often abundant in the understory tree layers. Tall shrubs include Kalmia latifolia (Mountain laurel) (usually dominant), Viburnum acerifolium (Mapleleaf viburnum), and Rhododendron periclymenoides (Pink azalea). The short-shrub layer is well-developed and includes Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry), Vaccinium stamineum (Deerberry), and Gaylussacia baccata (Black huckleberry), any one of which can exhibit patch-dominance. The herb layer generally has sparse cover but sometimes includes scattered individuals of Aureolaria laevigata (Entireleaf yellow false foxglove), Chimaphila maculate (Striped prince's pine), Comandra umbellate (Bastard toadflax), Cypripedium acaule (Moccasin flower), Danthonia spicata (Poverty oatgrass), Epigaea repens (Trailing arbutus), Gaultheria procumbens (Eastern teaberry), Hieracium venosum (Rattlesnake weed), Lysimachia quadrifolia (Whorled yellow loosestrife), Medeola virginiana (Indian cucumber), Monotropa uniflora (Indianpipe), Pteridium aquilinum (Western brackenfern), and/or Uvularia puberula (Mountain bellwort).

Community 1.2
Quercus prinus-Quercus rubra/Hamamelis virginiana Forest

The Chestnut Oak-Northern Red Oak/American Witch Hazel Forest, also known as the Central Appalachian Dry-Mesic Chestnut Oak - Northern Red Oak Forest (CEGL006057; NatureServe 2017), is a commonly and widely occurring vegetation community that has been well documented on this landscape. This is a closed canopy forest of somewhat protected rocky slopes. Canopy dominants include Quercus prinus (Chestnut oak) and Quercus rubra (Northern Red oak). Associated canopy species include Liriodendron tulipifera (Tuliptree), Acer rubrum (Red maple), Carya glabra (Pignut hickory), Carya ovalis (Red hickory), Carya tomentosa (mockernut hickory), Acer saccharum (Sugar maple), Tilia Americana (American basswood), Fagus grandifolia (American beech), and Betula lenta (Sweet birch). The tall-shrub layer is most often characterized by Hamamelis virginiana (American witch hazel) and Acer pensylvanicum (Striped maple). The lower shrub layer is patchy and contains a mixture of scrambling vines, ericads, and non-ericaceous species. The herbaceous layer is usually sparse but may include Dryopteris marginalis (Marginal woodfern), Dioscorea quaternata (Four leaf yam), Eurybia divaricata (= Aster divaricatus) (White wood aster), Ageratina altissima (White snakeroot), Polygonatum biflorum (Smooth solomons seal), Solidago caesia (Wreath goldenrod), Festuca subverticillata (Nodding fescue), Thelypteris noveboracensis (New York fern), Sanicula trifoliate (Largefruit blacksnake root), Prenanthes altissima (Tall rattlesnake root), Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern), Desmodium nudiflorum (Nakedflower ticktrefoil), Galium latifolium (Purple bedstraw), Houstonia purpurea (Venus’ pride), and Maianthemum racemosum (Feathery false lily of the valley).

Community 1.3
Quercus prinus - Pinus virginiana /Schizachyrium scoparium - Dichanthelium depauperatum Woodland

The Chestnut Oak - Virginia Pine - (Table Mountain Pine) / Little Bluestem - Starved Witchgrass Woodland (CEGL008540; NatureServe 2017) will occupy the most exposed, steep, convex slopes, ridge spurs, and clifftops which have high solar exposure. The canopy cover of stunted, often gnarled trees varies from semi-open to very open. Quercus prinus (Chestnut oak) and Pinus virginiana (Virginia pine) are usually codominant in variable proportions; in some slightly more mesic occurrences, Quercus rubra (Northern red oak) may occur with or in place of Quercus prinus (Chestnut oak). Pinus pungens (Table mountain pine) is an important, even dominant associate in a minority of stands. Minor but relatively constant tree associates include Carya glabra (Pignut hickory), Amelanchier arborea (Common serviceberry), and Sassafras albidum (Sassafras). The shrub layer varies from moderately dense to sparse, with Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry) and Vaccinium stamineum (Deerberry) the most constant and abundant species. Graminoid-rich openings dominated by Schizachyrium scoparium (Little bluestem), Dichanthelium depauperatum (Starved witchgrass), Carex pensylvanica (Pennsylvania sedge), Danthonia spicata (Poverty oatgrass) and Dichanthelium commutatum (Variable panicgrass) are frequent.

State 2
Post logging - Fire Excluded

Community 2.1
Quercus spp. – Carya spp. Invaded Forest

The existence of this alternative state is assumed based on the history of the Appalachians and field work in similar landscapes within the neighboring Ridge and Valley Province. We assume that the post logging, fire excluded oak – hickory forests are similar to the reference state (CEGL008515; NatureServe 2017) with the exception that overall species diversity is less, and trees are even-aged due to logging. The understory of these sites are dominated by fire sensitive species, most notably Acer rubrum (Red maple). Pinus strobus (eastern white pine) and Pinus virginiana (Virginia pine) may be part of the canopy as well. Early successional species like Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust), Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), and Prunus serotina (black cherry) are also present. A heavy colonization of Betula lenta (Sweet birch) has also been documented on similar landscapes and vegetation communities.

State 3
Post Settlement Transitional Woodland or Forest

Community 3.1
Quercus spp. – Pinus spp. Ruderal Forest

At this time, there is little data describing the post agricultural or settlement successional forests of the Quartzitic uplands. It is assumed to be some kind of Oak-Pine Ruderal Forest. The Existing Vegetation Type map (Landfire 2013) shows that at least 6 percent of this ecological site is covered by ruderal forest. The long history of settlement and logging in the Appalachians would suggest that some of the least steep and least rocky areas probably were cleared at one time. Given the infertility and dryness of the site, most likely some dry oak and pine successional communities are present.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Logging, but no agricultural conversion. Trees are allowed to stump sprout, soil is minimally disturbed, seed bank remains. Fire suppression allows fire sensitive species like tuliptree and red maple to out compete oak seedlings in the understory. Proximity to more highly disturbed areas provides source of nonnative invasive species to gain a foothold in the understory.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Logging followed by agricultural or settlement conversion, followed by abandonment. Soil surface is disturbed by tillage or clearing of tree stumps and vegetation, and allows colonization by successional species. Field is then abandoned. If surrounding forests are still intact, they can provide native seed sources. If surrounding forests are not intact, or area is surrounded by agriculture, or other human development, nonnative species may become dominant.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Control of understory to allow oak seedling recruitment. Prescribed fire will further advance the growth of oaks over fire sensitive species.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Logging followed by agricultural or settlement conversion. Soil surface is disturbed by tillage or clearing of tree stumps and vegetation, and allows colonization by successional species. Field is then abandoned. If surrounding forests are still intact, they can provide native seed sources. If surrounding forests are not intact, or area is surrounded by agriculture, or other human development, nonnative species may become dominant.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

Return to the reference or post logged minimally managed state may require a very long term series of costly management options and stages. Many species may need to be planted or seeded to restore the system. If using acorns, direct seeding must be done fairly heavily. Herbivory can be a problem as well as competition from faster growing species. Depending on the existing seed bank and the proximity of a mature forest from which to recruit seeds, ruderal forests may regain a mixed forest stand. Nevertheless, sites that have been cleared and tilled have significant soil disturbance which may include compaction, erosion, loss of native soil structure, loss of soil organic matter, disruption of soil microorganisms, all which affect the soil’s nutrient availability and water holding capacity (Duiker and Myers, 2005). These characteristics favor recolonization by plant species that have wind dispersed seeds (verses those that propagate through underground roots called rhizomes, or which have heavy seeds that stay near the parent tree), are shade intolerant, have rapid to moderate growth rates, and drought tolerance. These communities are distinctly different from the reference forest state (Dyer, 2010).

Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 2

Return to the reference or post logged minimally managed state may require a very long term series of costly management options and stages. Many species may need to be planted or seeded to restore the system. If using acorns, direct seeding must be done fairly heavily. Herbivory can be a problem as well as competition from faster growing species. Depending on the existing seed bank and the proximity of a mature forest from which to recruit seeds, ruderal forests may regain a mixed forest stand. Nevertheless, sites that have been cleared and tilled have significant soil disturbance which may include compaction, erosion, loss of native soil structure, loss of soil organic matter, disruption of soil microorganisms, all which affect the soil’s nutrient availability and water holding capacity (Duiker and Myers, 2005). These characteristics favor recolonization by plant species that have wind dispersed seeds (verses those that propagate through underground roots called rhizomes, or which have heavy seeds that stay near the parent tree), are shade intolerant, have rapid to moderate growth rates, and drought tolerance. These communities are distinctly different from the reference forest state (Dyer, 2010).