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Ecological site F131AY603MS

Batture - Frequently Flooded Wet Backswamp Flat Forest

Last updated: 6/10/2025
Accessed: 12/05/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 131A–Southern Mississippi River Alluvium

The Southern Mississippi River Alluvium (MLRA 131A) is the largest of 4 MLRAs within Land Resource Region O, the Mississippi Delta Cotton and Feed Grains Region. It occurs in portions of 7 states including Louisiana (32 percent), Arkansas (26 percent), Mississippi (26 percent), Missouri (12 percent), Tennessee (3 percent), Kentucky (1 percent), and Illinois (less than 1 percent). The MLRA is comprised of 29,555 square miles and extends roughly 650 miles from an area near Cape Girardeau, Missouri in the north to the MLRA’s transition to the Gulf Coast Marsh (MLRA 151) in the south. Average elevations range from 330 feet in the north to sea level in the southern part of the area. For much of the north-south distance, the MLRA is bounded to the east by an abrupt rise in elevation of loess-capped bluffs and hills, the Southern Mississippi Valley Loess (MLRA 134). West of the Mississippi River, the boundary is less distinct except to the northwest where the MLRA abuts the Ozark Plateaus and Ouachita province (MLRAs 116A, 117, and 118A). South of the Ozark and Ouachita escarpment, the MLRA adjoins the Southern Mississippi River Terraces (MLRA 131D), which includes the fabled Grand Prairie and merges with the valleys of the Arkansas and Ouachita rivers (MLRA 131B) and the Red River (MLRA 131C). Occurring within or bordering the Southern Mississippi River Alluvium are three separate loess-capped, upland remnants: Crowley’s Ridge, Macon Ridge, and Lafayette Loess Plain, which are western units of MLRA 134 (USDA-NRCS, 2006).

MLRA 131A is characterized by landscapes that were created and influenced by the current and earlier paths of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Waters transporting the materials that formed the area originate from as far west as the east slope of the Continental Divide to the western edge of the Appalachian Divide in the east. This comprises a drainage basin of roughly 1,245,000 square miles and includes all or parts of thirty-one U.S. states and two Canadian provinces (Elliott, 1932). The drainage basin of the Mississippi River roughly resembles a funnel which has its spout at the Gulf of America. Waters from as far east as New York and as far west as Montana contribute to flows in the lower extent of the river (USACE, 2017). The soils of these alluvial landscapes are very deep, dominantly poorly and somewhat poorly drained, and have textures that are mostly loamy or clayey. Principal soil orders are Alfisols, Vertisols, Inceptisols, and Entisols (USDA-NRCS, 2006).

The fluvial processes that shaped the area were highly dynamic, diverse, and complex. During the Pleistocene epoch, multiple continental glacial-interglacial cycles resulted in extreme fluctuations in river discharge and sediment loads. A braided river regime characterized the fluvial dynamics of the Mississippi River through much of the last glacial cycle (Autin et al., 1991; Rittenhour et al., 2007). Rapid aggradation of glacial outwash led to the development of prominent valley train features over a large portion of the area (Autin et al., 1991; Saucier, 1994; Aslan and Autin, 1999; Blum et al., 2000; Rittenour et al., 2007). A changing climate, meltwater withdrawal, and sea-level change induced a transition from a braided river regime to a predominantly single-channeled, laterally migrating river system during the Holocene epoch (Rittenhour et al., 2007; Shen et al., 2012) – characteristics that continue today. Fluvial dynamics of the migrating river resulted in the development of broad meander belts, backswamp environments, and extensive deltaic complexes (Saucier, 1994; Klimas et al., 2011).

Tremendous expanses of bottomland hardwood forests once covered much of the area. Today, the land base is largely in agriculture production, and soybeans, cotton, corn, and rice are the principal crops with sugarcane rising in importance in the southernmost portion of the MLRA (USDA-NRCS, 2022).

Due to its size and biophysical variability, the technical team advised subdividing the MLRA into six subregions: Western Lowlands, St. Francis Basin, Yazoo Basin, Tensas Basin, Delta Plain, and Batture.

LRU notes

For the purpose of ecological site concepts, the MLRA was separated by the technical team into 6 subregions based on various assemblages of data reviewed. The subregion where this site is delineated extends through the length of MLRA 131A, but it differs from other subregions because it is still hydrologically impacted by the regular flow of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. This subregion is locally known as “Batture” which is defined for the purposes of this Ecological Site as the alluvial land between the Mississippi River channel and the constructed levee system or other flood constricting natural features, such as natural levees or high bluffs. Individual levee systems have been present along the Mississippi River since the first Europeans settled the region in the early 18th century, but its design has changed many times since that first levee. The changes were brought about mainly by flooding, which in turn drove other factors such as costs and politics (Rogers, 2005).

The Mississippi River and Tributaries (MR and T) Project is a comprehensive flood control and navigation plan for the Lower Mississippi River and tributary streams. The MR&T was authorized under the Flood Control Act of 1928 and is the responsibility of the Mississippi River Commission (MRC). The project consists primarily of a system of levees, channel improvement works, and floodways. Currently, the river is entirely contained by either bluffs or levees from Cairo, IL to a point 90 river miles below New Orleans, except where major tributaries are confluent. This effort has been extremely successful in reducing or eliminating flooding over most of the historic floodplain and contributing to agricultural and urban development. Over one million acres of this remnant bottomland forest lies within the leveed floodplain of the Lower Mississippi River where most sites are still subject to annual flooding. Peak river flows typically occur in March, April, and May (Klimas, 1988).

The Ecological sites within the Batture region of MLRA 131A will be the most transient of all the sites of the MLRA. In the protected subregions, the landscape will maintain a progression of development, unless there are anthropogenic forces that alter it or there is a catastrophic river event that breaches the levee system. Landforms throughout the Batture have direct hydrologic connectivity to the Mississippi River and are subject to annual or near annual flooding, sedimentation, and potential modification. For instance, low elevation landforms that are frequently flooded and ponded are subject to and may receive sediment deposition of several feet, transforming the local area to conditions more similar to a natural levee or ridge ecological site. Conversely, a local natural levee or ridge landform could receive severe scouring impacts during a catastrophic flood event, resulting in a complete removal of the former elevated feature to one that becomes lower in elevation and subject to frequent flooding and ponding. In this dynamic environment, migration of the river channel to new pathways along with redistribution of sediments is a persistent possibility. There is a potential for a given ecological site at the local level to undergo rapid transformation and development to any of the sites that have been identified within the Batture.

When working within the Batture Subregion, onsite verification of the conditions of a given location is critical to planning. It has been witnessed by the Author of this site concept, flooding in a crop field due to current high flows of the Mississippi River. While at the same time seeing irrigation of the adjacent growing crops, due to dry conditions in the higher elevation areas of the field. It has also been noted by members of the technical team, where restoration plantings on ridge sites was converted to eroded swales, while adjacent shallow water areas were completely filled by sandy sediment creating ridges, from a single flooding event.

Classification relationships

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) and Land Resource Unit (LRU) (USDA-NRCS, 2006) MLRA 131A Southern Mississippi River Alluvium

EPA Level IV Ecoregion - 73a Northern Holocene Meander Belts, 73k Southern Holocene Meander Belts

The Natural Communities of Louisiana - (Louisiana Natural Heritage Program - Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries) - Forested Wetland, Bottomland Hardwood Forest, Batture

Ecological site concept

This ecological site occurs within the undulating landscape between the active river and man-made levee or upland bluffs of adjacent MLRA's. Active flooding, overwash, scour and sedimentation by the Mississippi River will impact the site. These sites have been altered greatly by anthropogenic means; the hydrology, soils, and vegetation have been altered beyond what would have naturally occurred in the region. Due to these alterations by construction of flood protection levees, the ecological sites that would have occurred on these locations are no longer relevant. There will be similarities to the sites found on the protected side of the levees, however, the hydrology, sedimentation and erosion have overshadowed all other ecological processes.

This site is found on backswamp flats where young, weakly developed soils known as Inceptisols (Tunica and Newellton soil series) and soils with high shrink swell potential known as Vertisols (Sharkey soil series) are characteristic. Dominant natural vegetation consists of wetland forests occurring on level to nearly level surfaces. Frequent flooding of this site contributes to soil inundation and saturation. These soils are deep to very deep, somewhat poorly and poorly drained that formed in clayey and clayey over loamy alluvium. Permeabilities range from slow to very slow through all clayey horizons and moderate to moderately slow in the underlying loamy horizons, where present. Slopes range from 0 to 3 percent.

Of note, this site occurs within the “unprotected” or “batture lands” (i.e., the alluvial land between the river channel and the constructed levee system) side of the extensive Mississippi River levee system and is distinguished from similar landforms that are protected from current flooding by constructed levees or natural features.

Associated sites

F131AY602MS	Batture - Frequently Flooded Very Poorly Drained Ponded Oxbow and Swale Forest This site is lower on the landscape and will be more regularly flooded.
F131AY601MS	Batture - Mississippi River Unprotected By Levee Sites Will direct users to this site when on-site determinations verify that the areas being planned are in a wet backswamp position that is regularly flooded or inundated.
F131AY604MS	Batture - Frequently Flooded Moderately Wet Low Ridge Forest This site is slightly higher on the landscape and will not be as regularly flooded.

F131AY602MS

Batture - Frequently Flooded Very Poorly Drained Ponded Oxbow and Swale Forest

This site is lower on the landscape and will be more regularly flooded.

F131AY601MS

Batture - Mississippi River Unprotected By Levee Sites

Will direct users to this site when on-site determinations verify that the areas being planned are in a wet backswamp position that is regularly flooded or inundated.

F131AY604MS

Batture - Frequently Flooded Moderately Wet Low Ridge Forest

This site is slightly higher on the landscape and will not be as regularly flooded.

Similar sites

F131AY502LA	Delta Plain - Poorly Drained Backswamp This site will be in a similar landscape position within the protected side of the levee in the Delta Basin of the MLRA.
F131AY302MS	Yazoo - Wet Clayey Backswamp Flat Forest This site will be in a similar landscape position within the protected side of the levee in the Yazoo Basin of the MLRA.
F131AY402LA	Tensas Basin - Poorly Drained Backswamp This site will be in a similar landscape position within the protected side of the levee in the Tensas Basin of the MLRA.

F131AY502LA

Delta Plain - Poorly Drained Backswamp

This site will be in a similar landscape position within the protected side of the levee in the Delta Basin of the MLRA.

F131AY302MS

Yazoo - Wet Clayey Backswamp Flat Forest

This site will be in a similar landscape position within the protected side of the levee in the Yazoo Basin of the MLRA.

F131AY402LA

Tensas Basin - Poorly Drained Backswamp

This site will be in a similar landscape position within the protected side of the levee in the Tensas Basin of the MLRA.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Quercus lyrata (2) Carya aquatica
Shrub	(1) Forestiera acuminata
Herbaceous	Not specified

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Physiographic features

Site concepts of the Batture subregion emphasize the extreme hydrologic drivers of them. The sites differ from the natural system due to increased frequency and duration of flooding as a result of confining the river to a narrowed floodplain. Within the Batture subregion there are open pastures and crop fields that can receive beneficial added nutrients and sediments from the flooding, but during extreme events can lose this sediment by erosion from the river’s currents. These flooding forces not only can remove recent sediment but can also scour the land's surface, leaving large gullies, as well as uprooting trees and causing similar erosion in forested areas.

A landscape profile shows the undulating nature of the landscape (Figure 1) between the constructed levees, and the surface elevation within the Batture may be higher than outside the levee system. This higher elevation could be attributed to the continuous accretion of material from flooding.

The additional sediment deposition on these sites has substantially altered them from their historical state. Most of the historic site soils are buried by the current soil surface, so to describe a historic landscape position is not beneficial. These sites potentially could be described as hardwood stands with relatively frequent inundation or flooding due to the proximity to the river channel over a gradient of species composition from the relatively bare soil surface of sandy material, through low frequently flooded backswamp positions to the higher natural levees.

Figure 1. Batture Subregion typical cross section from the constructed levee to the Mississippi River Channel. Diagram notes the Ecological Sites as they would fit across the landscape.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Alluvial plain > Backswamp (2) Alluvial plain > Flat (3) Alluvial plain > Meander scar
Runoff class	Negligible to very high
Flooding duration	Extremely brief (0.1 to 4 hours) to very long (more than 30 days)
Flooding frequency	Very rare to frequent
Ponding duration	Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to very long (more than 30 days)
Ponding frequency	None to occasional
Elevation	318 ft
Slope	3%
Ponding depth	90 in
Water table depth	33 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

The climate of MLRA 131A is classified as humid subtropical (Koppen System), which is typified by mostly mild winters; long, hot summers; and no routinely recurring wet or dry season (Smith and Klimas, 2002; NCDC, 2018).

In the warmer season (and throughout much of the year), winds from the south convey moisture from the gulf leading to humid, subtropical conditions that are favorable for afternoon thunderstorms. These storms produce an average of about 25 percent of the area’s annual precipitation and are at times accompanied by locally destructive winds. An additional hazard of concern during late summer through early fall is the tropical cyclone. While most impacts from hurricanes and tropical storms are confined along the coastal zone, heavy rainfall, severe flooding, and high winds can occur well into the Batture Subregion when such systems pass through the area. To the extreme, the region is susceptible to the effects of a strong Bermuda high during the summer, which can cause devastating drought conditions for weeks and even months in some years.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	192-221 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	225-248 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	52-55 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	186-223 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	218-251 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	52-56 in
Frost-free period (average)	206 days
Freeze-free period (average)	236 days
Precipitation total (average)	54 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 2. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 4. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 5. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 6. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 7. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) ST JOSEPH 3 N [USC00168163], Newellton, LA
(2) STONEVILLE EXP STA [USC00228445], Leland, MS
(3) TUNICA 2 N [USC00228998], Tunica, MS
(4) CARUTHERSVILLE [USC00231364], Caruthersville, MO

Influencing water features

These sites are influenced by the whole of the Mississippi River watershed above their current location. They are directly impacted by flooding on a regular basis. This site is in a water-receiving position. Flow may be received from adjacent landscapes, upstream sources, and backwater flooding.

Soil features

Please note that the soils listed in this section may not be all-inclusive. There may be additional soils that fit the site’s concepts. Additionally, the soils that provisionally form the concepts of this site may occur elsewhere, either within or outside of the MLRA and may or “may not” have the same geomorphic characteristics or support similar vegetation. Some soil map units and soil series included in this “provisional” ecological site were used as a “best fit” for a particular soil – landform catena during a specific era of soil mapping, regardless of the origin of parent material or the location of MLRA boundaries. Therefore, the listed soils may not be typical for MLRA 131A or a specific location, and the associated soil map units may warrant further investigation in a joint ecological site inventory – soil survey project. When utilizing this provisional description, the user is encouraged to verify that the area of interest meets the appropriate ecological site concepts by reviewing the soils, landform, vegetation, and physical location. If the site concepts do not match the attributes of the area of interest, please review the Similar or Associated Sites of this description to determine if another site may be a better fit for your area of interest.

The Sharkey (very-fine, smectitic, thermic Chromic Epiaquerts) soils are very deep, poorly drained, and have a perched water table at the surface during wet periods of the year, generally, winter into spring. They formed in clayey alluvium on level to concave broad, backswamp positions, the toe slopes of natural levees, in the swales at the base of meander scroll ridges, and abandoned channels. Dominant slope gradient is between 0 and 1 percent but may range to a high of 3 percent. Permeability is very slow, and runoff is slow to very slow with some areas receiving overland flow from adjacent sites. The seasonally high water table perches at the surface to 15 cm (6 in). These soils are flooded and ponded frequently up to very long durations. The subsoil stays moist in normal years but will dry out enough to form intersecting slickensides.

Tunica soils (clayey over loamy, smectitic over mixed, superactive, nonacid, thermic Vertic Epiaquepts) formed in clayey over loamy alluvium.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium
Surface texture	(1) Clay (2) Silty clay (3) Silty clay loam
Drainage class	Poorly drained
Permeability class	Very slow to moderate
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	1 – 2%
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (Depth not specified)	4 – 7.1 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (Depth not specified)	3%
Electrical conductivity (Depth not specified)	1 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (Depth not specified)	1
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (Depth not specified)	6.6 – 7.5
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	1 – 3%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

This ecological site occurs within the undulating landscape between the active river and man-made levee or upland bluffs of adjacent MLRA's. Active flooding, overwash, scour and sedimentation by the Mississippi River will impact the site. These sites have been altered greatly by anthropogenic means; the hydrology, soils, and vegetation have been altered beyond what would have naturally occurred in the region. Due to these alterations by construction of flood protection levees, the ecological sites that would have occurred on these locations are no longer relevant. There will be similarities to the sites found on the protected side of the levees, however, the hydrology, sedimentation and erosion have overshadowed all other ecological processes.

The site is a wetland forests occurring on level, nearly level flats, that are occasionally to frequently flooded. Soil inundation and saturation is a major driver of this site. These soils are deep to very deep, somewhat poorly and poorly drained that formed in clayey and clayey over loamy alluvium.

This ecological site is subject to heavy overwash and deposition of loamy and sandy sediments. These hydrologic impacts are generally expressed at a local level or scale and do not occur throughout the site’s distribution. Resultingly, a depositional gradient across the backswamp environment may best characterize impacted areas. In locations where coarse sediments are most prominent, both surface and subsurface drainage may improve on and within the fine-textured soils of this site. Such improvements could result in a greater admixture of plant species that are typically found on better drained sites.

Of note, this site occurs within the “unprotected” or “batture lands” (i.e., the alluvial land between the river channel and the constructed levee system) side of the extensive Mississippi River levee system and is distinguished from similar landforms that are protected from current flooding by constructed levees or natural features.

Due to this site's position on the landscape and flooding frequency, it will rarely have been cleared as a crop field or pasture. However, in some locations, it may have been cleared and included as a small part of a field and will be limited in productivity due to wetness and flooding. This alternative state is not included in the state and transition diagram due to its limitations.

State and transition model

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Natural State

2. Canopy Gap

T 1-2	-	Wind or water Force causing canopy gaps.
T 2-1	-	Regeneration of natural species.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Mixed Hardwood

State 1
Natural State

Community 1.1
Mixed Hardwood

Mixture of varying quantities of overcup oak (Quercus lyrate), water hickory (Carya aquatica), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), water locust (Gleditsia aquatica), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), eastern swampprivet (Forestiera acuminata).

State 2
Canopy Gap

This state consists of forest canopy openings that are created by catastrophic disturbances, allowing sunlight to reach understory strata and ground surfaces. Depending on local conditions and disturbance regime and intensity, a continuum or range of successional stages and community structure (physiognomy) is represented. Provisionally, this state includes seral stages ranging from recent disturbances that consist mainly of sparse herbaceous cover over mostly bare soil to the regeneration of woody species among a dense herbaceous cover (early stand initiation stage) to the initial stem exclusion stage where woody growth overtops and shades out the herbaceous stratum. In future ecological site development efforts, multiple community phases that describe the composition and progression from one stage to the next may be warranted for specifying management strategies and actions. The nature of the batture area makes it difficult to get slower growing species tall enough to withstand the deeper flood waters during regeneration. They can be planted and survive only to be lost in the next flood event. It is difficult to get some species back in this area once they are gone from an area.

Transition T 1-2
State 1 to 2

Wind or water force causing canopy gaps.

Transition T 2-1
State 2 to 1

Regeneration of natural species.

Additional community tables

Supporting information

Other references

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[USACE] U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2004. Louisiana Coastal Area Comprehensive Coastwide Ecosystem Restoration Study. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans, LA. Available online: https://www.lca.gov/Library/ProductList.aspx?Prodtype=0&folder=1118.

[USACE] United States Army Corps of Engineers. 2017. The Mississippi Drainage Basin. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans District Website. Available: https://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/Missions/Mississippi-River-Flood-Control/Mississippi-River-Tributaries/Mississippi-Drainage-Basin/ (Accessed: 2017).

[USACE] U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Atchafalaya Basin Project, Brochure, http://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/Portals/56/docs/PAO/Brochures/AtchafalayaBasinProject.PDF (accessed 12 Oct. 2018)

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[USDA, SCS] USDA, Soil Conservation Service. 1968. Soil Survey Interpretations for Woodland in the Southern Mississippi Valley Alluvium Area of LA MS AR TN MO and KY, Progress Report.

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Contributors

D. Charles Stemmans II
Rachel M. Stout Evans
Kevin Nelms

Approval

Charles Stemmans, 6/10/2025

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our appreciation to the MLRA 131A Technical Team for their assistance and input in the development of this document. With special recognition of Tom Foti, Arkansas Natural Heritage Program and Henry Langston, Arkansas Dept. of Transportation for their time, travel and knowledge assisting members of the team with field reconnaissance of several sites and assistance in verifying ecological factors. Emile S. Gardiner, Research Forester, Forest Service, Center for Bottomland Hardwoods Research, for nautical support and locating batture locations to improve the understanding of the dynamics of the batture region. Charles Klimas for the body of work and inventory of the Batture region of the Mississippi River that provided much of the data utilized to develop these site concepts.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	06/10/2025
Approved by	Charles Stemmans
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Presence of water flow patterns:
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:

Sub-dominant:

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Perennial plant reproductive capability: