State 1
Reference State (minimally-managed)

Community 1.1
Conifer-dominated Mixed-wood Forest

This site is a matrix forest system of montane spruce-fir which often forms a mosaic of strongly coniferous patches and mixed patches, with occasional smaller inclusions of northern hardwoods, but is overall more than 50% coniferous. Picea rubens and Abies balsamea are the dominant conifers. Gaps formed by wind, snow, ice, and harvesting are the major replacement agents; fires may be important but only over a long return interval. NatureServe Element Code: CES201.565

Community 1.2
Spruce-Fir Forest

A conifer or sometimes mixed swamp that occurs on acidic muck to shallow peat. This community typically occurs in a drainage basin, in some cases filling the basin, but also can occur at the edge of a lake or pond, or along gentle slopes of islands where there is some nutrient input from groundwater discharge or subsurface flow. These swamps are usually dense, with a fairly closed canopy (80 to 90% cover). The dominant trees are usually red spruce (Picea rubens) and balsam fir (Abies balsamea); either one may be dominant in a stand or they may be codominant. In the Catskills, balsam fir may be absent with red maple (Acer rubrum) becoming codominant. In the Adirondacks, black spruce (Picea mariana) or white spruce (P. glauca) may replace red spruce as a dominant tree. Other trees with low percent cover include yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), white pine (Pinus strobus), black ash (Fraxinus nigra), tamarack (Larix laricina), northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). The shrub layer is often sparse; characteristic and dominant shrubs include mountain holly (Nemopanthus mucronatus) along with sapling canopy trees. Other less frequently occurring shrubs include alders (Alnus viridis ssp. crispa, A. incana ssp. rugosa), blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum, V. myrtilloides), wild raisin (Viburnum nudum var. cassinoides), mountain ash (Sorbus americana), and winterberry (Ilex verticillata). Characteristic herbs are cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea), sedges (Carex trisperma, C. folliculata), goldthread (Coptis trifolia), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), starflower (Trientalis borealis), common wood-sorrel (Oxalis montana), creeping snowberry (Gaultheria hispidula), and dewdrop (Dalibarda repens). The nonvascular layer is often dominated by peat mosses, including Sphagnum girgensohnii, S. centrale, and S. angustifolium. Other characteristic bryophytes include the leafy liverwort Bazzania trilobata and big red stem moss (Pleurozium schreberi). (Edinger et al. 2014)

Resilience management. New York Natural Heritage Program State Rank: S3- Typically 21 to 100 occurrences, limited acreage, or miles of stream in New York State. Spruce-fir swamps occur in lowlands where they may grade into either spruce flats or balsam flats (upland forests). A spruce-fir swamp is distinguished from spruce flats by the lower elevation of the swamp, wetland soils, presence in the swamp of patches of peat mosses (Sphagnum spp.), and the absence of black cherry (Prunus serotina), a characteristic species of spruce flats and balsam flats. This site may be occasionally flooded by beaver activity.

State 2
Semi-natural State

Shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics driven by natural disturbances, processes, and pressures (may have some anthropogenic drivers). More research is needed to determine the extent of the Semi-natural state associated with this ecological site.

Community 2.1
Invasiveness and Biological Introductions

Introduction of invasive species, pathogens, and/or pests resulting in shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics. More research is needed to determine the extent of these effects on the semi-natural state associated with this ecological site.

Community 2.2
Transitional Wetland or Marsh

Site is dominated largely by herbaceous vegetation with sparse and scattered mixed-wood species due to ponding or flooding from beaver activity.

State 3
Cultural State

Shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics that are primary driven by anthropogenic disturbances and pressures (may have some associated natural drivers). More research is needed to determine the extent of the cultural state associated with this ecological site.

Community 3.1
Cropland

Site cleared and used for crop cultivation and production

Community 3.2
Grass/Hay Land

Site transformed into grazing site or hay production.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

climate change, hydrological alteration, significant increase in flooding events and annual precipitation, introduction of invasive species, pests, and pathogens

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

landscape alteration, mechanical soil disturbance, landscape clearing, seeding, planting

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

remediation of hydrologic alteration, management of invasive species, pests, and pathogens, restoration of key native plant species, restoration of terrestrial habitat

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

landscape alteration, mechanical soil disturbance, landscape clearing, seeding, planting

Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 1

seeding, planting, restoration of compacted soil, establishment of key native plant species

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

seeding, planting, restoration of compacted soil, establishment of key native plant species