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Ecological site R150AY537TX

Lowland

Last updated: 9/22/2023
Accessed: 11/21/2024

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

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Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 150A–Gulf Coast Prairies

MLRA 150A is in the West Gulf Coastal Plain Section of the Coastal Plain Province of the Atlantic Plain in Texas (83 percent) and Louisiana (17 percent). It makes up about 16,365 square miles (42,410 square kilometers). It is characterized by nearly level plains that have low local relief and are dissected by rivers and streams that flow toward the Gulf of Mexico. Elevation ranges from sea level to about 165 feet (0 to 50 meters) along the interior margin. It includes the towns of Crowley, Eunice, and Lake Charles, Louisiana, and Beaumont, Houston, Bay City, Victoria, Corpus Christi, Robstown, and Kingsville, Texas. Interstates 10 and 45 are in the northeastern part of the area, and Interstate 37 is in the southwestern part. U.S. Highways 90 and 190 are in the eastern part, in Louisiana. U.S. Highway 77 passes through Kingsville, Texas. The Attwater Prairie Chicken National Wildlife Refuge and the Fannin Battleground State Historic Site are in the part of the area in Texas.

Classification relationships

USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2006.
-Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 150A

Ecological site concept

As named, the Lowland ecological site occurs on the lowest part of the landscape. It receives excess water from surround landforms and may stay wet for extended periods throughout the year. This site is not similar in soils, landscape positions or vegetation to any other sites in MLRA 150A.

Associated sites

R150AY526TX	Southern Blackland The Southern Blackland ecological site shows an intact grass community with small clumped dispersal of woody species. The soils are very deep, richly black in color, and characterized by their shrink-swell nature. The sites are widely distributed across the uplands and terraces throughout the region. This site has a heavier surface texture and is higher in the landscape.
R150AY741TX	Northern Loamy Prairie The Northern Loamy Prairie is characterized by very deep loamy soils occurring on uplands. The site is correlated to areas with mean annual rainfall from 48 to 57 inches. They are vegetatively productive and provide good grazing for livestock. This site has similar surface textures but not in a depressional landform.
R150AY740TX	Northern Blackland The Northern Blackland ecological site shows an intact grass community with small clumped dispersal of woody species. The soils are very deep, richly black in color, and characterized by their shrink-swell nature. The sites are widely distributed across the uplands and terraces throughout the region. The site is correlated to areas with mean annual rainfall that ranges from 41 to 57 inches.
R150AY639TX	Clay Loam The Clay Loam ecological site has very deep clay loam soils and has high vegetative production.
R150AY535TX	Southern Loamy Prairie The Southern Loamy Prairie is characterized by very deep loamy soils occurring on uplands. They are vegetatively productive and provide good grazing for livestock. This site has similar surface textures but not in a depressional landform.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	(1) Panicum virgatum (2) Panicum hemitomon

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Physiographic features

The site was formed in loamy fluviomarine deposits of the Beaumont and Lissie Formation from the Pleistocene age. These soils are in relic stream meander depressions on the coastal prairie. Landform shapes are round, oval, or linear depressions 6 to 18 inches deep. Slope is usually less than 0.5 percent but range up to 1 percent. Elevation is 10 to 250 feet.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Coastal plain > Depression (2) Coastal plain > Flat (3) Coastal plain > Meandering channel
Runoff class	Negligible to high
Flooding duration	Brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	None to occasional
Ponding duration	Brief (2 to 7 days) to very long (more than 30 days)
Ponding frequency	Occasional to frequent
Elevation	10 – 250 ft
Slope	1%
Ponding depth	18 in
Water table depth	60 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

The climate of MLRA 150A is humid subtropical with mild winters. The average annual precipitation in the northern two-thirds of this area is 45 to 63 inches. It is 28 inches at the extreme southern tip of the area and 30 to 45 inches in the southwestern third of the area. The precipitation is fairly evenly distributed, but it is slightly higher in late summer and midsummer in the western part of the area and slightly higher in winter in the eastern part. Rainfall typically occurs as moderate intensity, tropical storms that produce large amounts of rain during the winter. The average annual temperature is 66 to 72 degrees F. The freeze-free period averages 325 days and ranges from 290 to 365 days, increasing in length to the southwest.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	234-255 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	273-365 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	45-60 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	225-266 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	223-365 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	42-61 in
Frost-free period (average)	244 days
Freeze-free period (average)	324 days
Precipitation total (average)	52 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 2. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 4. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 5. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 6. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 7. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) VICTORIA FIRE DEPT #5 [USC00419361], Victoria, TX
(2) PORT LAVACA [USC00417183], Port Lavaca, TX
(3) BAY CITY WTR WKS [USC00410569], Bay City, TX
(4) DANEVANG 1 W [USC00412266], El Campo, TX
(5) EL CAMPO [USC00412786], El Campo, TX
(6) NEW GULF [USC00416286], Boling, TX
(7) COLUMBUS [USC00411911], Columbus, TX
(8) SEALY [USC00418160], Sealy, TX
(9) HOUSTON CLOVER FLD [USW00012975], Pearland, TX
(10) HOUSTON HOOKS MEM AP [USW00053910], Tomball, TX
(11) HOUSTON SAN JACINTO DA [USC00414328], Houston, TX
(12) ANAHUAC [USC00410235], Anahuac, TX
(13) BEAUMONT CITY [USC00410611], Vidor, TX
(14) PORT ARTHUR SE TX AP [USW00012917], Port Arthur, TX
(15) LAKE CHARLES [USW00003937], Lake Charles, LA
(16) JENNINGS [USC00164700], Jennings, LA
(17) EUNICE [USC00162981], Eunice, LA
(18) CROWLEY 2 NE [USC00162212], Crowley, LA

Influencing water features

These soils receive water from surrounding soils and are ponded for periods of several days to more than a month in duration. The ponding commonly occurs during the winter and spring in most years. These sites may be wetlands, but onsite delineations are required to determine official status.

Wetland description

This site has hydric soils. Onsite investigation is necessary to determine exact local conditions.

Soil features

The site consists of very deep, poorly drained, very slowly permeable soils. The soil profile characteristically consists of an ochric horizon and then an argillic horizon. The ochric can measure 3 to 20 inches thick with an average of 10 inches. Crayfish krotovinas are found within the upper 60 inches. Surface horizon reaction ranges from strongly acid to neutral. Soil correlated to this site include: Aris, Cieno, Clodine, Gessner, Leton, Prairieland, Rexville, and Tomball.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Fluviomarine deposits – igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock
Surface texture	(1) Silt loam (2) Loam (3) Fine sandy loam
Family particle size	(1) Fine-silty (2) Fine-loamy
Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained to poorly drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to very slow
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-60in)	7 – 14 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-60in)	5%
Electrical conductivity (0-60in)	2 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in)	2
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in)	4.5 – 7.3
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-60in)	Not specified
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-60in)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

The Coastal Prairie was historically described as being covered by tall and coarse grasses. The land was noted as a level prairie with open grasslands by travelers in the 1800's. The Lowland site is distinct from surrounding prairie because of its wetness. However, it developed as part of the mid/tallgrass complex on the coastal prairie. The reference community is a mid/tallgrass/sedge-dominated grassland, heavily influenced by fluctuating water regimes, as well as grazing and fire. During wet cycles, more wet-tolerant species dominate, while during dry cycles species adapted to drier conditions dominate.

The tallgrass species common throughout the site are switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), maidencane (Panicum hemitomon), giant cutgrass (Zizaniopsis miliacea), and Florida paspalum (Paspalum floridanum). Midgrasses, flat sedges, and sedges are important species, making up as much as 50 percent of herbaceous production during wet cycles. These include longtom paspalum (Paspalum denticulatum), knotroot bristlegrass (Setaria parviflora), green flatsedge (Cyperus virens), jointed flatsedge (Cyperus articulatus), and spikerush (Eleocharis spp.). Perennial forbs such as bundleflower (Desmanthus spp.) and button snakeroot (Liatris spp.) are a minor component of the vegetation. Annual forbs like sumpweed (Iva spp.) and ragweed (Ambrosia spp.) are seasonally abundant in response to drought-cycles. During wet cycles, species like arrowhead (Sagittaria longiloba), water clover (Marsilea macropoda), dock (Rumex spp.) and other wet-tolerant forbs become more prevalent.

The introduction of domestic livestock and subsequent heavy grazing reduces the preferred tallgrass component allowing midgrasses and sedges to dominate. The midgrass community may be dominated by longtom paspalum. The Lowland site is preferred by cattle over adjacent upland areas and tends to be heavily used. Heavy forage removal also removes fuel for fire. This reduces the incidence and intensity of wildfire allowing more change in the vegetative composition. Continued heavy grazing and reduction of fire over time remove the tall and midgrass components. A shortgrass/forb/woody plant community develops. Invasive exotic grasses such as smutgrass (Sporobulus indicus), bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), and common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) are likely occupants of this community. A few woody species like sennabean (Sesbania drummondii), mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa), huisache (Acacia farnesiana), baccharis (Baccharis spp.), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera.), and Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum) make up a substantial part of annual production.

Grassland community trends may be reversed through prescribed grazing and the judicious use of fire. Since the site is preferred by cattle, prescribed grazing is necessary to protect the site and rest the grasses from overuse. Once the grassland to brushland threshold is crossed, a combination of practices will be necessary to restore the grassland state. Brush management and seeding are possibilities. Animal impact can cause compaction layers to develop disrupting the water cycle so ripping, aerating, and disking may also be necessary to repair the system. Combining these with prescribed grazing and fire are necessary for restoration processes to proceed.

State and transition model

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Depressional Grassland

2. Depressional Shrubland

T1A	-	Absence of disturbance and natural regeneration over time
R2A	-	Reintroduction of fire and regular disturbance return intervals

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Mid/Tallgrass/Sedge

1.2. Midgrass/Shortgrass/Sedges

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Huisache/Sesbania/Sedges/Shortgrass

State 1
Depressional Grassland

Dominant plant species

panicgrass (Panicum), grass

Community 1.1
Mid/Tallgrass/Sedge

This site is interspersed within the upland prairie sites on the Coastal Prairie. It is part of the tall/midgrass prairie complex that developed under intermittent grazing by bison and frequent winter and summer fires. The potential plant community on the site is a wet prairie dominated by tall and midgrasses. However, it varies between wet and dry cycles. During dry periods, tallgrasses such as switchgrass, eastern gamagrass, maidencane, and Florida paspalum can make up as much as 50 percent of the total herbaceous vegetation with the remainder composed of various mid and shortgrass species. During wet cycles, the tallgrasses decrease except around the edges of the site, while longtom paspalum, sedges, and knotroot bristlegrass dominate. Maidencane and giant cutgrass can be common, depending on the depth of the depression. Forbs are a small component, but annual forbs may be seasonally abundant in response to drought sequences. Abusive grazing by domestic livestock removes the tallgrass components, reduces fire and allows species such as longtom paspalum to increase. Woody plants are absent in the reference community.

Figure 8. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	4950	6075	7200
Forb	550	700	800
Shrub/Vine	0	0	0
Tree	0	0	0
Total	5500	6775	8000

Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). TX7611, Mid/Tallgrass/Sedge Community. Warm-season midgrasses, tallgrasses, and sedges occupy the plant community..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
2	2	6	10	18	18	3	6	15	10	6	4

Community 1.2
Midgrass/Shortgrass/Sedges

Abusive grazing removes the tallgrass component from the reference community driving a shift to mid and shortgrasses. Once again, wet and dry cycles play a major role in which plant community dominates the site. During wet cycles, longtom paspalum, giant cutgrass, or maidencane becomes the dominant midgrass as sedges and knotroot bristlegrass increase. During prolonged dry periods in the southwestern range of the site, the plant community changes with a reduction in longtom paspalum and increasing numbers of flatsedge, spikerush, low panicums, paspalums, brownseed paspalum, broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus), bushy bluestem (Andropogon glomeratus), and longspike tridens (Tridens strictus). Removal of herbage by grazing shifts the composition to less productive grasses. Cessation of fire, combined with drought, followed by wet sequences encourages the invasion of forbs. Increases in forb composition further weaken the grass components driving further site change. Community dynamics can be reversed and close to reference community vegetation restored by prescribed grazing and fire if a seed source is still present. Fencing may be required to properly graze.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Abusive grazing and lack of fire will cause the community to shift to 1.2.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing and the return of fire will transition the community back to 1.1.

State 2
Depressional Shrubland

Dominant plant species

sweet acacia (Acacia farnesiana), shrub
baccharis (Baccharis), shrub

Community 2.1
Huisache/Sesbania/Sedges/Shortgrass

As the mid and shortgrass community deteriorates the site is occupied by needlegrass rush (Juncus roemerianus) and common carpetgrass (Axonopus affinis). Introduced species that often invade include vaseygrass (Paspalum urville), smutgrass (Sporobulus indicus), and torpedograss (Panicum repens). Seasonal aspects of cool-season annual grasses such as canary grass (Phalaris spp.) and aquatic forbs occur. Grass cover is usually lacking with large amounts of exposed soil surface. Hardpans and compaction layers are generally present. Woody plants like sennabean, baccharis, wax myrtle, and Chinese tallow tree will invade as conditions allow. Scattered huisache (Acacia smallii) trees may be present. The current range of huisache is west of Houston. Restoration of this site will generally require brush and weed management practices. Prescribed grazing and rest are necessary. Seeding may also be required if a natural seed source is not available. Once adequate fuel has accumulated, prescribed fire should be used.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Continued heavy grazing, lack of fire, and no brush management will transition the reference state to State 2.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Prescribed grazing, brush management, and return of fire can restore State 2 back to the reference state.

Additional community tables

Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
0	Midgrass			2200–3200
1	Tallgrasses			3025–4400
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	1540–2240	–
	eastern gamagrass	TRDA3	Tripsacum dactyloides	1540–2240	–
	giant cutgrass	ZIMI	Zizaniopsis miliacea	1540–2240	–
	Florida paspalum	PAFL4	Paspalum floridanum	800–1500	–
	maidencane	PAHE2	Panicum hemitomon	800–1500	–
2	Grass/Grasslikes			550–800
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	0–500	–
	jointed flatsedge	CYAR4	Cyperus articulatus	0–500	–
	green flatsedge	CYVI2	Cyperus virens	0–500	–
	spikerush	ELEOC	Eleocharis	0–500	–
	marsh bristlegrass	SEPA10	Setaria parviflora	0–500	–
	gaping grass	STHI3	Steinchisma hians	0–500	–
3	Midgrasses			275–400
	bushy bluestem	ANGL2	Andropogon glomeratus	0–250	–
	broomsedge bluestem	ANVI2	Andropogon virginicus	0–250	–
	brownseed paspalum	PAPL3	Paspalum plicatulum	100–250	–
	longspike tridens	TRST2	Tridens strictus	100–250	–
4	Midgrasses			275–400
	panicgrass	PANIC	Panicum	150–300	–
	crowngrass	PASPA2	Paspalum	150–300	–
Forb
5	Forbs			275–400
	spiny chloracantha	CHSP11	Chloracantha spinosa	150–300	–
	southern annual saltmarsh aster	SYDI2	Symphyotrichum divaricatum	150–300	–
6	Forbs			330–480
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	50–100	–
	bundleflower	DESMA	Desmanthus	50–100	–
	button eryngo	ERYU	Eryngium yuccifolium	50–100	–
	blue mudplantain	HELI2	Heteranthera limosa	50–100	–
	bigfoot waterclover	MAMA9	Marsilea macropoda	50–100	–
	yellow puff	NELU2	Neptunia lutea	50–100	–
	Pennsylvania smartweed	POPE2	Polygonum pensylvanicum	50–100	–
	dock	RUMEX	Rumex	50–100	–
	violet wild petunia	RUNU	Ruellia nudiflora	50–100	–
	longbarb arrowhead	SALO2	Sagittaria longiloba	50–100	–
7	Forbs			55–80
	prairie broomweed	AMDR	Amphiachyris dracunculoides	25–50	–
	sneezeweed	HEAM	Helenium amarum	25–50	–
	annual marsh elder	IVAN2	Iva annua	25–50	–

Interpretations

Animal community

The Coastal Prairie communities support a wide array of animals. Cattle and many species of wildlife make extensive use of the site. White-tailed deer may be found scattered across the prairie and are found in heavier concentrations where woody cover exists. Feral hogs are present and at times abundant. Coyotes are abundant and fill the mammalian predator niche. Rodent populations rise during drier periods and fall during periods of inundation. Attwater’s pocket gophers are abundant and have an important impact on the ecology of the site. The badger is present but not abundant in locations at the southern extent of the site. Locally unique species alligators and bullfrogs.

The region is a major flyway for waterfowl and migrating birds. Hundreds of thousands of ducks, geese, and sandhill cranes abound during winter. Two important endangered species occur in the area, the whooping crane and Attwater’s prairie chicken. Many other species of avian predators including northern harriers, ferruginous hawks, red-tailed hawks, white-tailed kites, kestrels, and, occasionally, swallow-tailed kites utilize the vast grasslands. Many species of grassland birds use the site, including blue grosbeaks, dickcissels, eastern meadowlarks, several sparrows, including, vesper sparrow, lark sparrow, savannah sparrow, grasshopper sparrow, and Le Conte’s sparrow.

Hydrological functions

This site is part of the extensive wetland systems of the Gulf Coast Prairie which functions in both flood control and aquifer recharge. These sites, when dry, serve as reservoirs to capture excessive precipitation during high-intensity rainfall events. When in pristine condition this site is important in aquifer recharge. In impaired condition (low organic matter, compaction layers, etc.) the site loses more water through evaporation and transpiration than it delivers to aquifer recharge.

Recreational uses

This site is frequently used for hunting ducks and geese during wet cycles in winter months. The site is also extensively used for bird watching.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from former range site descriptions for Lowland and Lakebed Sites and from the current draft of the Lakebed Ecological Site Description. Field visits were done in Victoria, Refugio, Jefferson, Chambers, Harris, Waller, and San Patricio Counties. Personal contacts and communications with range-trained personnel were used extensively.

Other references

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Contributors

Dr. C. Wayne Hanselka, RMS, Texas AgriLife, Corpus Christi, TX
Tim Reinke, RMS, NRCS, Victoria, TX

Approval

Bryan Christensen, 9/22/2023

Acknowledgments

Reviewers and Contributors:
Justin Clary, RMS, NRCS, Temple, TX
Shanna Dunn, RSS, NRCS, Corpus Christi, TX
Vivian Garcia, RMS, NRCS, Corpus Christi, TX
Mark Moseley, RMS, NRCS, San Antonio, TX
Mike Stellbauer, RMS, NRCS, Bryan, TX

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	Mike Stellbauer, Zone RMS, NRCS, Bryan, TX
Contact for lead author
Date	06/08/2004
Approved by	Bryan Christensen
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
None.
Presence of water flow patterns:
Water flow patterns should not be evident on this depressional site.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Less than 15 percent bare ground randomly distributed throughout.
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Little litter movement can be expected.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil surface is resistant to erosion. Stability class range is expected to be 5 to 6.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Soil surface structure is about 8 inches thick with dark grayish brown clay loam subangular blocky structure. SOM is 1 to 4 percent.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Little effect in this depressional landscape position.
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Warm-season tallgrasses/grass-likes

Sub-dominant:
Forbs

Other:
Cool-season grasses/grass-likes

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Some plant mortality can be expected for perennial warm-season grasses (FACU, UP) or perennial warm-season forbs (FAC, FW, OB) depending on the length of ponding during the growing season.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
4,000 pounds per acre for below average moisture years to 7,000 pounds per acre for above average moisture years.
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Potential invasive species include bahiagrass, bermudagrass, and Chinese tallow tree.
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All perennial plants should be capable of reproducing, except for periods of prolonged drought conditions, heavy herbivory, or intense wildfires.