Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site VX159B01X500
Udic Forest
Accessed: 11/24/2024
General information
Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 159B–Subhumid and Humid Low and Intermediate Mountain Slopes
This MLRA occurs in the State of Hawaii in the Kau District on the Big Island of Hawaii. Elevation ranges from near sea level to 6,000 feet (about 2000 meters). Slopes are gentle to moderate. Topography is moderately dissected, gently sloping to rolling slopes on the side of Mauna Loa volcano. Basaltic lava underlies a mantle of basic, weathered, volcanic ash. Average annual precipitation ranges from 50 to 100 inches (1250 to 2500 millimeters). Rainfall is well-distributed throughout the year with an enhanced rainy season from November through March. Average annual air temperatures range from 54 to 73 degrees F (12 to 23 degrees C) with little seasonal variation. The dominant soil order is Andisols with an isothermic soil temperature regime and udic soil moisture regime. Native vegetation consists of tall-stature rain forest that includes ohia lehua, koa, and hapuu.
Classification relationships
This ecological site occurs within Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 159B - Subhumid and Humid Low and Intermediate Mountain Slopes.
Ecological site concept
This ecological site represents the tall stature, moist forest in the mauka areas of the Kau District of the Big Island. Most of the ecological site is within the Kau State Forest Reserve. Some of it is within the Kahuku Ranch portion of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park that is mauka of South Point, and some is on private ranchland makai of the State Forest Reserve. Good examples are accessible on Mountain House Road and on the trail beginning near the old airstrip mauka of Pahala.
The central concept of the Udic Forest is of fertile, moderately well to well drained, deep to very deep Andisols formed in deposits of volcanic ash ranging from 1,500 to 10,000 years old. Annual air temperatures and rainfall create warm (isothermic), moist (udic) soil conditions conducive to plant growth for all or most of the year. These sites support tall-stature rain forest consisting of four canopy levels: an overstory up to 100 feet (30 meters) tall of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) or ohia lehua and koa (Acacia koa); a secondary canopy from 30 to 60 feet (9 to 18 meters) tall of multiple tree species; a dense tree fern (hapuu = Cibotium spp.) canopy 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9 meters) tall; and a diverse understory of ferns, shrubs, and vines.
Associated sites
VX160X01X504 |
Ustic-Dry Udic Forest F160XY504 Ustic-Dry Udic Forest is a drier forest bordering F159BY500 site on the southwest and northeast in narrow zones of drier local climate. |
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VX160X01X006 |
Isomesic Savanna R160XY006 Isomesic Savanna is an ohia lehua/shrub/grass savanna bordering F159AY500 at higher elevations above the climate inversion layer. |
Similar sites
VX159A01X500 |
Well Drained Udic and Perudic Forest F159AY500 Deep and Very Deep Volcanic Ash Forest occurs on similar soils to those of F159BY500 but on the north and northeast slopes of the island. Rainfall amounts overlap somewhat between the two ecological sites, but F159AY contains areas with higher rainfall. Vegetation communities are very similar. |
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Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree |
(1) Metrosideros polymorpha |
---|---|
Shrub |
(1) Cibotium glaucum |
Herbaceous |
Not specified |
Legacy ID
F159BY500HI
Physiographic features
This ecological site occurs on lava flows on sloping mountainsides of shield volcanoes. Lava flows are aa (loose rocks) or pahoehoe (smooth, relatively unbroken). Volcanic ash fields range from very shallow to very deep on the underlying lava.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms |
(1)
Shield volcano
(2) Mountain slope (3) Lava flow |
---|---|
Flooding duration | Very brief (4 to 48 hours) |
Flooding frequency | None to occasional |
Ponding frequency | None |
Elevation | 1,200 – 6,400 ft |
Slope | 1 – 60% |
Ponding depth |
Not specified |
Water table depth | 60 in |
Aspect | SE |
Climatic features
Air temperature in Hawaii is buffered by the surrounding ocean so that the range in temperature through the year is narrow. This creates “iso-“ soil temperature regimes in which mean summer and winter temperatures differ by less than 6 degrees C (11 degrees F).
Hawaii lies within the trade wind zone. Significant amounts of moisture are picked up from the ocean by trade winds up to an altitude of more than 6000 feet (very roughly 2000 meters). As the trade winds from the northeast are forced up the mountains of the island their moisture condenses, creating rain on the windward slopes; the leeward side of the island receives little of this moisture. Above approximately 6000 feet elevation there is a temperature inversion at the boundary between moist air and higher, drier air. Average annual temperatures decrease at a slower rate above the inversion than below it. Easily observed vegetation changes occur within a short distance at the inversion layer between this ecological site and R160XY006 Isomesic Savanna.
In winter, low pressure systems often approach the island from the west, producing extensive rainstorms that primarily affect the leeward sides of the island.
Reference: Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998.
Average annual precipitation ranges from 50 to 140 inches (1250 to 3500 millimeters). Rainfall is well-distributed throughout the year with an enhanced rainy season from November through March. Average annual temperature ranges from 54 to 71 degrees F (12 to 22 degrees C).
Table 3. Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (average) | 365 days |
---|---|
Freeze-free period (average) | 365 days |
Precipitation total (average) | 103 in |
Figure 1. Monthly precipitation range
Figure 2. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 3. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 4. Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
-
(1) HAWAII VOL NP HQ 54 [USC00511303], Hawaii National Park, HI
Influencing water features
There are no water features influencing this site.
Soil features
The soils in this ecological site formed in basaltic volcanic ash deposited over aa lava, pahoehoe lava, or pumice over volcanic rock. There is also a small area of alluvium deposited over pahoehoe lava (Fluvents, soil map unit 557).
The Na Manua Haalou area, on the western mauka boundary of Kau Forest Reserve, contains Puali soils exhibiting the wetter range of characteristics of the soil series, as evidenced by common to many redoximorphic concentrations. This area receives additional water runoff from surrounding, higher elevation pahoehoe flows. Because this area is in the higher, drier part of the ES, this received runoff does not appear to raise the water table enough to change the vegetation very much; the vegetation fits within the concept of the ecological site.
The volcanic ash soils are classified as Andisols, which have these general management characteristics: ion exchange capacity that varies with pH, but mostly retaining anions such as nitrate; high phosphorus adsorption, which restricts phosphorus availability to plants; excellent physical properties (low bulk density, good friability, weak stickiness, stable soil aggregates) for cultivation, seedling emergence, and plant root growth; resistance to compaction and an ability to recover from compaction following repeated cycles of wetting and drying; and high capacity to hold water that is available to plants. These characteristics are due to the properties of the parent material, the clay-size noncrystalline materials formed by weathering, and the soil organic matter accumulated during soil formation (Shoji et al. 1993).
Soils that are moderately deep (20 to 40 inches, or 50 to 100 cm) or deeper over underlying lava appear to present few or no limits on native or weedy vegetation, and it seems to make no difference whether the underlying lava rock is pahoehoe or aa. However, these soils may present some tillage difficulties when formed in aa and containing significant amounts of coarse rock fragments near the surface. Very shallow and shallow ash soils over pahoehoe are sometimes ripped to break up the underlying lava and create a deeper rooting zone.
Figure 5. Alapai soil.
Table 4. Representative soil features
Parent material |
(1)
Basaltic volcanic ash
–
basalt
|
---|---|
Surface texture |
(1) Hydrous silt loam (2) Sandy clay loam |
Family particle size |
(1) Loamy |
Drainage class | Somewhat poorly drained to somewhat excessively drained |
Permeability class | Very slow to moderately rapid |
Soil depth | 2 – 60 in |
Surface fragment cover <=3" | 40% |
Surface fragment cover >3" | 25% |
Available water capacity (0-40in) |
1 – 11 in |
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in) |
Not specified |
Electrical conductivity (0-40in) |
2 mmhos/cm |
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in) |
Not specified |
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in) |
4.2 – 7.3 |
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified) |
2 – 95% |
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified) |
90% |
Ecological dynamics
The information in this ecological site description (ESD), including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed using archaeological and historical data, professional experience, and scientific studies. The information is representative of a complex set of plant communities. Not all scenarios or plants are included. Key indicator plants, animals, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.
States and community phases within this ecological site were differentiated by inspection of data; ordination programs were not available. They were verified by professional consensus and observation of examples in the field.
Natural Disturbances
The natural (not human-caused) disturbances most important for discussion in this ecological site are lava flows, natural fires, volcanic ash falls, and wind throw.
A lava flow obviously destroys all the vegetation it covers. Regrowth of vegetation through primary succession and formation of new soil proceed at widely varying rates depending on flow age, local climate, lava type (aa or pahoehoe), and proximity of seed sources. Flows located in warm, moist climates are rapidly colonized by the nitrogen-fixing lichen Stereocaulon vulcani, followed soon by vascular plants including ohia lehua trees. In these environments, considerable vegetation can be established in periods measured in decades. Cooler locations at higher elevations revegetate more slowly. Cobbly aa lava provides safe sites for seed germination as well as sites that promote plant rooting and soil accumulation in the gaps between cobbles. This is a more favorable situation for revegetation and soil development than flat, bare pahoehoe lava. Where lava flows are narrow or where kipukas (areas of land surrounded by younger lava) occur, revegetation is hastened by the proximity of seed sources from intact vegetation stands nearby.
Primarily at the mauka (highest elevation) boundaries of this ecological site and below the climate inversion layer are lava flows that are younger than typical. The vegetation on these younger flows still shows the effects of burial by lava and subsequent recovery via primary succession. These flows soon develop into ecological site R160XY006 Isomesic Savanna. Over time (probably 500 to 750 years) these areas acquire a denser stand of ohia lehua that begins to shade out the characteristic understory species of the Isomesic Savanna. Eventually they will transform into F159BY500 (this ecological site).
Heat from nearby lava flows sears and kills vegetation and can ignite wildfires that may carry to some extent. These effects can be seen in vegetation growing near the edges of recent flows. However, natural wildfire caused by lava or by lightning is probably not a frequent disturbance in this ecological site.
Vegetation can be killed by erupted layers of ash from volcanic vents, depending on the temperature of the ash and the depth of accumulation. However, vegetation sometimes survives ash flows (Vitousek 2004). Vegetation rapidly recovers because ash flow deposits possess physical and chemical properties favorable to plant growth, including high water holding capacity, high surface area, rapid weathering, and favorable mineral nutrient content. New soils develop very rapidly in ash deposits, and further soil development is facilitated in turn by the rapidly-developing vegetation (Shoji et al. 1993). The different ash accumulations in this ecological site may account for some of the vegetation variability, particularly in species composition (koa versus ohia lehua) of the overstory.
Wind throw of vegetation can occur during hurricanes or other high wind events. This disturbance probably opens the canopy periodically and creates vegetation variations.
Human Disturbances
Human-related disturbances have been much more important than natural disturbances in this ecological site since the arrival of Polynesians and, later, Europeans. This is reflected in the State and Transition Model Diagram.
Humans arrived in the Hawaiian Islands 1200 to 1500 years ago. Their population gradually increased so that by 1600 AD at least 80% of all the lands in Hawaii below about 1500 feet (roughly 500 meters) in elevation had been extensively altered by humans (Kirch 1982); some pollen core data suggest that up to 100% of lowlands may have been altered (Athens 1997). By the time of European contact late in the 18th century, the Polynesians had developed high population densities and placed extensive areas under intensive agriculture (Cuddihy and Stone 1990).
Areas within the lower elevations of this ecological site are known to have been inhabited and cultivated prior to European discovery. For example, evidence exists for human habitation in the Wood Valley area (Craighill et al. 1991).
Prehistoric native lowland forest disturbance can be attributed to clearing for agriculture by hand or by fire, introduction of new plants and animals, and wood harvesting. Higher elevation forests such as this ecological site would have been much less affected, but may have been affected by factors such as inadvertently introduced plant diseases and seed predation by the introduced Pacific Rat (Athens 1997).
After the arrival of Europeans, documentary evidence attests to accelerated and extensive deforestation, erosion, siltation, and changes in local weather patterns (Kirch 1983) due to more intensive land use, modern tools, and introduction of more plant, animal, and microbe species.
The Polynesians introduced dogs, Pacific rats, and small pigs to the islands. Cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and larger European pigs were introduced in the final decades of the 18th century. These animals ranged free on the islands, becoming very numerous and destructive by the early decades of the 19th century. By 1851, records reported severe overstocking of pastures, lack of fences, and large numbers of feral livestock (Henke 1929).
Native forests were damaged by the extensive harvesting of tree ferns (hapuu) for pulu in the mid-1800s. Pulu is a soft fiber that covers the base of fronds of the hapuu. It was exported to the west coast of America to be used in pillows and mattresses.
Parts of the lower elevations of this ecological site were cleared for sugar plantations in the 19th century; these plantations were active into the late 20th century. Plantation activities caused extensive soil erosion, which is confirmed by areas of accumulation of this eroded soil at lower elevations. Also, forests at the upper boundaries of sugar plantations were affected by harvesting of firewood and intrusion of wildfires from the sugar lands into the forest.
With abandonment of the sugar plantations, guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), which had been a roadside weed in the plantations, rapidly spread through the fields. Guineagrass is a tall, densely-growing, and highly competitive species that also provides excellent forage for cattle, and it facilitated the transition of former sugar lands to grazing lands.
Through the 20th and into the 21st centuries, increases in human populations with attendant land development, as well as accelerated introduction of non-native mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, plants, and microorganisms, have brought about dramatic changes to wild ecosystems in Hawaii. This ecological site evolved without the presence of large mammals or the regular occurrence of fires. Much of the original forest area remains. However, the native plant community in many areas has been disturbed and in some places destroyed due to agriculture, urban development, establishment of exotic timber trees, domestic and feral ungulate foraging, and invasion by introduced species. Introduced plant species are capable of completely and permanently replacing native forest.
Foraging by feral cattle and pigs or forest clearing and abandonment facilitate invasion by weeds. However, introduced weeds appear able to successfully invade native stands regardless of human or ungulate disturbances. Major weeds include strawberry guava, christmasberry, kahili ginger, and introduced grasses. Guineagrass and kikuyugrass grasslands become infested with unpalatable grasses, shrubs, and trees under improper management or abandonment.
State and transition model
Figure 6. STM F159BY500
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Ecosystem states
States 2 and 5 (additional transitions)
State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 5 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference State
The Reference State consists of one plant community. Under a regime of natural disturbances, this community has probably been stable through post-glacial time frames and from a broad-scale spatial perspective. A matrix of variations in canopy cover and species composition in all canopy levels is observable. This matrix variability does not appear to be connected to soils, climate, or landscape features, but rather is probably due to wind throw, deaths of large trees, and other chance occurrences.
Community 1.1
`Ohi`a lehua - koa/hapu`u/kanawao
This community phase is a forest consisting of four canopy strata: an open or closed upper canopy of ohia lehua or ohia lehua and koa up to 100 feet (30 meters) tall, a secondary canopy of diverse tree species 30 to 60 feet (9 to 18 meters) tall, a dense tree fern canopy 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9 meters) tall, and a diverse understory of shrubs and ferns. Vines, particularly ieie, are common both on the ground and on trees. These forests have standing live timber of 300 to 5900 cubic feet per acre, with a representative value of about 5000 cubic feet per acre. Typical low values are about 1500 cubic feet per acre. The lowest values of 300 to 800 cubic feet per acre on steep, continually eroding soils, and in the drier extremes of this ecological site. Canopy cover of ohia lehua and koa in the upper canopy varies on the microscale from about 10% to 80%, with a representative value of 40 to 50% on a macroscale. Secondary canopy cover of medium-stature tree species is typically about 20%, concentrated in the 30 to 40 feet (9 to 12 meters) height range. Cover of the tertiary tree fern canopy is usually in the range of 60% to 90%, mostly between 13 to 20 feet (4 to 6 meters) tall. Koa and ohia lehua do not reproduce successfully in the shady understory of intact forest. Tree ferns, medium-stature tree species, and shrubs reproduce and grow well in the understory. The ground layer of small ferns is typically dense and diverse in the absence of introduced ungulates. A heavy litter layer that appears to inhibit establishment of small plants is usually present on the soil surface. In particular, dead tree fern fronds produce a coarse, thick, heavy litter layer. Koa phyllodes create a firm, continuous litter layer. Phyllodes are petioles (leaf stalks) that are adapted to function as leaves on mature koa trees.
Forest overstory. The uppermost forest canopy consists of ohia lehua or a combination of ohia lehua and koa. There seems to be no consistent relationship between dominant tree canopy composition and soil type, rainfall, elevation, or any other environmental variable. Neither overstory species grows well in shade. Primary succession in Hawaii typically results in an initial forest overstory of ohia lehua, often consisting of roughly even-aged cohorts. It is likely that long-term disturbance history controls koa occurrence. Koa is a fast growing, opportunistic species that is able to take advantage of temporary openings in the forest canopy. Wind fall, nearby lava flows, or death of ohia lehua population cohorts would provide the conditions for koa expansion where their seeds are present. Koa also can reproduce by sprouting from near-surface roots.
Forest understory. The most common secondary canopy tree species are olapa or olapalapa (Cheirodendron trigynum), kolea lau nui (Myrsine lessertiana), olomea (Perrottetia sandwicensis), and pilo (Coprosma spp.). The palm native to this ecological site, loulu (Pritchardia lanigera), is rare but may have been more abundant in the past.
The tertiary canopy contains small trees but is dominated by three species of hapuu or tree ferns: hapuu (Cibotium glaucum), hapuu ii or hapuu li (Cibotium menziesii), and hapuu or Chamisso’s manfern (Cibotium chamissoi). Cibotium glaucum is the most abundant, followed by C. menziesii; C. chamissoi is the least abundant.
The lowest canopy stratum, which ranges in height from the ground to about 4.5 feet (1.5 meters), consists of seedlings and immature individuals of species in the taller strata, small shrub species, forbs, vines (some prostrate, some climbing, some both), sedges, and over 30 species of ferns and fern allies.
Table 5. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover | 2-5% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 0.0-0.1% |
Grass/grasslike basal cover | 0.0-0.1% |
Forb basal cover | 0.0-0.1% |
Non-vascular plants | 3-5% |
Biological crusts | 0% |
Litter | 80-90% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0.1-1.0% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0.1-1.0% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 0.0-0.1% |
Table 6. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) | – |
---|---|
Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) | – |
Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) | – |
Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) | 1-2% |
Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) | 2-3% |
Tree snags** (hard***) | – |
Tree snags** (soft***) | – |
Tree snag count** (hard***) | 1-3 per acre |
Tree snag count** (hard***) | 1-3 per acre |
* Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 7. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
---|---|---|---|---|
<0.5 | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0-1% |
>0.5 <= 1 | 0% | 0-1% | 0-1% | 0% |
>1 <= 2 | 0-1% | 0-1% | 0% | 0% |
>2 <= 4.5 | 0-1% | 3-5% | – | – |
>4.5 <= 13 | 30-60% | 5-10% | – | – |
>13 <= 40 | 60-70% | – | – | – |
>40 <= 80 | 30-40% | – | – | – |
>80 <= 120 | 5-10% | – | – | – |
>120 | – | – | – | – |
State 2
Naturalized Grassland State
This state is comprised of three community phases. Most of the grasslands are on former sugar plantations where guineagrass was an agricultural weed. Guineagrass now has taken over these lands as the dominant species. Kikuyugrass is the dominant grass, sometimes with pangolagrass, in some higher elevation areas where these species have been planted. Most of these areas are now being reforested. Some parts of Kapapala Ranch appear to be in a transitional area between guineagrass and kikuyugrass dominance. Information on these kikuyugrass/pangolagrass pastures can be found in Ecological Site Description F160XY504 Ustic-Dry Udic Forest. This state consists of three grassland community phases. These phases are maintained by grazing, which keeps preferred species from becoming too tall, and adequate recovery periods, which ensure vigor and cover of preferred species. High production of preferred grass species and extensive cover allow for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality. These factors are degraded by grazing practices that result in loss of preferred grass species leading to increase in less desirable grasses, weed invasion, and an increase in the extent of bare soil. Prescribed burning generally is not allowed due to high risks to structures, fences, and native forest stands. Wildfires caused by lightning or arson sometimes occur. They are very intense and difficult to contain, because guineagrass produces huge amounts of fuel and grows to a height of almost 10 feet (3 meters), while kikuyugrass produces large amounts of fuel and has rhizomes that can smolder underground for days, sometimes reigniting a surface fire. Most of the grasslands in this ecological site are on former sugar plantations where guineagrass (Urochloa maxima) was a species of roadsides and waste areas (Earl Spence, rancher and manager, personal communication). Guineagrass now has taken over these lands as the dominant forage grass. All grass, sedge, forb, vine, shrub, and tree species found in this state have been introduced to Hawaii by humans within the past two centuries, either inadvertently or intentionally. Scattered, remnant native trees, either koa or ohia lehua, sometimes occur in these naturalized grasslands, but they are unable to reproduce without protection from ungulates and control of grasses and weeds. Occasionally, western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum) and uluhe or Old World forkedfern (Dicranopteris linearis) occur; both of these fern species are native to Hawaii. Community Phase 2.1 mostly consists of guineagrass, sometimes with an admixture of glycine or perennial soybean (Neonotonia wightii). Continuous grazing that does not allow the preferred forage species to recover from defoliation results in Community Phase 2.2, which is dominated by lower value grass species but contains enough remnant guineagrass to allow for a shift back to Plant Community 1 with prescribed grazing. Longer-term continuous grazing leads to Community Phase 2.3, which consists of low value grass species and increasing cover of alien shrubs and tree saplings. Improvement of this Plant Community requires weed control followed by prescribed grazing.
Community 2.1
Guineagrass - kikuyugrass/glycine
The dominant grass species in this pasture type is guineagrass that has volunteered in old sugarcane plantations. In higher elevation areas in Kahuku and Keauhou, kikuyugrass and sometimes pangolagrass have been planted. Guineagrass is very productive and nutritious for livestock. Careful management of this caespitose (bunch-forming) grass is required to maintain it at an efficient height (two to four feet) while maintaining sufficient ground coverage by leaves, litter, and grass clumps to protect the soil from erosion and to suppress weed growth. The normal total annual production (all types and species of plants) of the grasslands in this community phase is about 14,000 lb/acre of forage. Above normal production is about 16,000 lb/acre; below normal production is about 10,000 lb/acre).
Forest understory. This community phase is not forest, despite the automated default heading printed above this section, but rather a naturalized grassland that occurs where forests have been cleared.
Guineagrass is very competitive with other plants when properly managed and can comprise 85 to nearly 100% of the total production on a site. Forbs, shrubs, tree seedlings, and other grass species can occur in the interspaces between guineagrass bunches but are insignificant in their share of total production in well-managed sites. They are kept in check by competition with guineagrass and foraging and trampling by livestock. Perennial soybean or glycine (Neonotonia wightii), a competitive (and potentially weedy in forests), climbing legume vine, and three-flowered ticktrefoil (Desmodium triflorum), a prostrate legume, are desirable forage species that can be maintained within guineagrass stands by careful grazing management.
Figure 14. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 8. Ground cover
Tree foliar cover | 0-1% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana foliar cover | 1-2% |
Grass/grasslike foliar cover | 80-90% |
Forb foliar cover | 1-2% |
Non-vascular plants | 0% |
Biological crusts | 0% |
Litter | 30-40% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 1-5% |
Table 9. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
---|---|---|---|---|
<0.5 | – | 0% | 0% | 0-1% |
>0.5 <= 1 | – | 0-1% | 0% | 1-2% |
>1 <= 2 | – | 0-1% | 5-10% | 1-2% |
>2 <= 4.5 | – | 1-2% | 85-90% | 1-2% |
>4.5 <= 13 | – | – | 1-5% | – |
>13 <= 40 | – | – | – | – |
>40 <= 80 | 0-10% | – | – | – |
>80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
>120 | – | – | – | – |
Community 2.2
Hilograss - carpetgrass
This community phase is dominated by grass and grasslike species with lower forage value than guineagrass. Cattle can be maintained on these forages, but animal growth and vigor will be reduced. Also, the number of weedy species is high, and their stature, seed production potential, and wide distribution can lead to rapid increase and a shift to Community Phase 2.3 unless management is improved.
Forest understory. The most abundant grasses are hilograss (Paspalum conjugatum), common carpetgrass (Axonopus fissifolius), and shortleaf spikesedge (Kyllinga brevifolia), all of which have lower stature and are much less productive than guineagrass. Significant amounts (around 20% canopy cover) of guineagrass remain, but it is grazed low and is scattered across the site. Desirable forage legumes have been grazed out. Height of weedy trees, shrubs, ferns, vines, and forbs is low, and the combined cover of all these species is about 5 to 20%.
Table 10. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover | 0.0-0.1% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 0.0-0.1% |
Grass/grasslike basal cover | 30-40% |
Forb basal cover | 0.1-1.0% |
Non-vascular plants | 0% |
Biological crusts | 0% |
Litter | 50-60% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 3-5% |
Table 11. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
---|---|---|---|---|
<0.5 | 0% | 0% | 10-20% | 1-2% |
>0.5 <= 1 | 0% | 0% | 20-30% | 1-5% |
>1 <= 2 | 0-1% | 0-1% | 20-30% | – |
>2 <= 4.5 | 0-1% | 0-1% | 10-20% | – |
>4.5 <= 13 | 0-1% | – | – | – |
>13 <= 40 | 0% | – | – | – |
>40 <= 80 | – | – | – | – |
>80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
>120 | – | – | – | – |
Community 2.3
Common guava - christmasberry/sourbush/broomsedge - beardgrass
This community phase is dominated by grass species with little or no forage value. Guineagrass typically comprises a small portion (roughly 5% canopy cover) of the grasses present, but sometimes is more abundant but of low stature. Spiny forbs and vines are common, as are a large number of forb and fern species with little or no forage value. Introduced shrubs and small trees are common, and seedlings and saplings of large, introduced tree species are present. Bare soil is 10% or more of the ground surface. The abundance of immature trees with potential mature heights of 20 to over 100 feet (6 to over 30 meters) presents a strong risk of losing the grassland to weedy forest. Improving the grazing regime is extremely unlikely to shift this phase to a more productive grassland phase due to the abundance of weeds. Frequent mowing is not worthwhile; it will keep shrubs and trees in check but will do little to improve the grass and forb community. Herbicide treatments are needed to reduce weed abundance. Reseeding of guineagrass may be needed, along with removal of livestock until guineagrass has reassumed dominance.
Forest understory. Hilograss, common carpetgrass, broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicum), and beardgrass or Colombian bluestem (Schizachyrium condensatum) are the most abundant grasses. Sawtooth blackberry (Rubus argutus), yellow Himalayan raspberry (Rubus ellipticus), and West Indian raspberry or thimbleberry (Rubus rosifolius) form small thickets. Shrubs such as cure for all or sourbush (Pluchea carolinensis), along with small trees such as common guava (Psidium guajava) and christmasberry or Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius) have combined canopy cover of about 20% and heights of 2 to 4.5 feet (0.5 to 1.5 meters). Seedlings and saplings of large tree species such as octopus tree (Schefflera actinophylla) and albizia or peacocksplume (Falcataria moluccana) are often present.
Table 12. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover | 0.1-1.0% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 0.1-1.0% |
Grass/grasslike basal cover | 30-40% |
Forb basal cover | 0.1-0.2% |
Non-vascular plants | 0% |
Biological crusts | 0% |
Litter | 50-60% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 5-10% |
Table 13. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
---|---|---|---|---|
<0.5 | 0% | 0% | 5-10% | 0-1% |
>0.5 <= 1 | 0% | 0% | 20-30% | 0-1% |
>1 <= 2 | 0-1% | 0-1% | 20-30% | 1-2% |
>2 <= 4.5 | 0-1% | 1-2% | 5-10% | – |
>4.5 <= 13 | 5-10% | 5-10% | – | – |
>13 <= 40 | 0-1% | – | – | – |
>40 <= 80 | – | – | – | – |
>80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
>120 | – | – | – | – |
Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2
Community phase 2.1 degrades to phase 2.2 by continuous grazing that weakens preferred guineagrass or kikuyugrass and legumes in relation to less desirable forage species such as hilograss, common carpetgrass, and sedges.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1
Community phase 2.2 can be reconverted to phase 2.1 by prescribed grazing. A prescribed grazing plan provides for intensive but temporary grazing of pastures that ensures that cattle consume some low-value forage species along with preferred forages and allows preferred forages time to recover from defoliation. The grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing. Invading broomsedge and beardgrass may be controlled by mowing their seed stalks before seed set and by liming to increase soil pH.
Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3
Community phase 2.2 degrades to phase 2.3 by long-term continuous grazing. Guineagrass cover is greatly reduced and largely replaced by lower-value forage grasses. Weedy forbs such as spiny amaranth, introduced blackberries, and introduced shrubs such as sourbush have increased. Broomsedge and beardgrass often are the most abundant grass species.
Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1
Community phase 2.3 can be converted to phase 2.1 by a combination of weed control and prescribed grazing. Weeds such as introduced blackberries, sourbush, and spiny amaranth are not controllable by domestic livestock and must be killed with herbicide. The grazing prescription will require removal of livestock from the pasture until guineagrass has reestablished adequately to support grazing. Thereafter, the grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing.
Pathway 2.3B
Community 2.3 to 2.2
Herbicidal weed control measures, liming, and mechanical brush control can reduce the densities of weedy shrubs, forbs, and grasses. However, these measures alone will not bring about guineagrass dominance without changes in the grazing regime.
State 3
Planted Timber State
This state consists of one community phase, which is a plantation of introduced timber tree species that have been established on former sugarcane or grazing lands. With typical management, it is not susceptible to unplanned transitions or restorations to other states.
Community 3.1
Exotic timber trees/guineagrass
This community is typically managed in the long term for economic returns. Many introduced timber species will potentially grow well in the environment of this ecological site, where they also may be free of pests that are present in their native habitats.
Forest overstory. Various species of Eucalyptus are most commonly planted, including hybrids (primarily E. grandis x urophylla), grand eucalyptus (E. grandis), rainbow gum (E. deglupta), red gum (E. robusta), and blue gum (E. saligna). Other valuable species can be planted, including African mahogany (Khaya senegalensis), Honduran mahogany (Swietenia microphylla), toon or Australian red cedar (Toona ciliata), and Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata). Other species are also possible. Consult with NRCS, the University of Hawaii Extension Forester, or a private consultant to ensure that noninvasive species are selected and that species are planted in suitable elevation ranges. Few introduced timber species are suitable for the full elevation range of this ecological site.
Koa is a valuable, fast-growing native tree that can be planted on these sites. It is much more likely to thrive at elevations higher than about 1500 feet (460 meters); lower elevation plantings are often subject to diseases. Feral and domestic animals must be fenced out of koa plantations for enough years to allow the trees to attain a stature at which animals are unable to push down and eat them. Trampling of koa’s shallow roots and eating the trees’ bark can remain a problem for a longer time. There are examples of adequately mature koa stands being maintained along with careful cattle grazing in silvopastures.
Forest understory. Guineagrass is usually abundant beneath the timber trees; despite being shaded by trees, it can form a nearly continuous canopy cover and attain heights of 3 to 4.5 feet (1 to 1.5 meters). Guineagrass appears to be partially suppressed beneath mature stands of Eucalyptus species, possibly due to the density and chemical composition of the tree litter. Strawberry guava can form dense stands beneath any timber species.
Table 14. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover | 3-5% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 0% |
Grass/grasslike basal cover | 1-2% |
Forb basal cover | 0% |
Non-vascular plants | 0% |
Biological crusts | 0% |
Litter | 75-90% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0.1-1.0% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0.1-1.0% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 1-5% |
Table 15. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) | – |
---|---|
Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) | – |
Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) | 0-1% |
Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) | 0-1% |
Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) | – |
Tree snags** (hard***) | – |
Tree snags** (soft***) | – |
Tree snag count** (hard***) | |
Tree snag count** (hard***) | 1-2 per acre |
* Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 16. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
---|---|---|---|---|
<0.5 | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% |
>0.5 <= 1 | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% |
>1 <= 2 | 0% | 0% | 1-10% | 0% |
>2 <= 4.5 | 0-1% | – | 2-60% | 0% |
>4.5 <= 13 | 0-1% | – | – | – |
>13 <= 40 | 0-1% | – | – | – |
>40 <= 80 | 85-95% | – | – | – |
>80 <= 120 | 1-5% | – | – | – |
>120 | – | – | – | – |
State 4
Invaded Understory State
This state consists of one community phase. It arises by invasion by introduced species of intact native forest (the Reference State) or, in some cases, of native overstory stands from which the original understory has been cleared. Native species are unable to regenerate in the highly competitive understory of introduced plants and eventually die out. With time, large introduced tree species will emerge to replace the native overstory trees and form a new overstory. When this last step has occurred, the site will have transitioned to State 5, Invaded Overstory and Understory State. Disturbance of the soil and direct damage to native understory plants by introduced ungulates, particularly pigs and cattle, will speed the transition to this state by killing native plants and by creating better germination sites for introduced species. Restoration to the Reference State or a facsimile of it is possible by fencing the site, removing all ungulates, applying herbicides, and replanting native species when needed. Restoration efforts will be affected depending on the degree of invasion by introduced species and by the particular species that have invaded the site. Long term weed management and fence maintenance will be necessary.
Community 4.1
Koa - `ohi`a lehua/strawberry guava/kahili ginger
The community has an intact or diminished overstory of large ohia lehua and/or koa trees with a dense understory of introduced shrubs, ferns, vines, grasses, and small trees.
Forest overstory. The overstory consists of ohia lehua and/or koa. Secondary canopy native species are usually somewhat diminished. Wild coffee or kopiko (Psychotria spp.) is usually the most common native species remaining in the secondary canopy.
Forest understory. The only native species remaining in the lower canopy levels are a few hapuu (Cibotium glaucum) or hapuu li (Cibotium menziesii), and traces of small wild coffee or kopiko, some peperomia (Peperomia spp.) at ground level, an occasional ieie vine (Freycenetia arborea), and a few patches of uluhe or Old World forkedfern. Some small native fern species may be found growing on trees.
The understory is usually dominated by a nearly impenetrable stand of strawberry guava or waiawi (Psidium cattleianum), which is usually 10 to about 30 feet (3 to 9 meters) tall. Other species indicated on the table grow sparsely beneath the strawberry guava or fill in gaps between it.
Table 17. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover | 3-5% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 1-2% |
Grass/grasslike basal cover | 0.0-0.1% |
Forb basal cover | 0.0-0.1% |
Non-vascular plants | 1-5% |
Biological crusts | 0% |
Litter | 80-85% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0.1-1.0% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0.1-1.0% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 0.0-0.1% |
Table 18. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) | – |
---|---|
Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) | – |
Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) | – |
Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) | 0-1% |
Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) | 0-1% |
Tree snags** (hard***) | – |
Tree snags** (soft***) | – |
Tree snag count** (hard***) | 0-2 per acre |
Tree snag count** (hard***) | 1-3 per acre |
* Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 19. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
---|---|---|---|---|
<0.5 | 0% | 0% | 2-3% | 0-1% |
>0.5 <= 1 | 0% | 0% | 3-5% | 1-5% |
>1 <= 2 | 0-1% | 0-1% | 1-2% | 10-20% |
>2 <= 4.5 | 5-10% | 5-10% | – | 0% |
>4.5 <= 13 | 10-20% | 10-20% | – | – |
>13 <= 40 | 30-50% | 1-5% | – | – |
>40 <= 80 | 10-20% | – | – | – |
>80 <= 120 | 10-20% | – | – | – |
>120 | – | – | – | – |
State 5
Invaded Overstory and Understory State
This state is comprised of one plant community dominated by introduced species in both the overstory and understory. Understory vegetation usually is very sparse to nonexistent. Remnant individuals of a few native species may persist. This state might be considered a dead end as far as further succession or transition to another state. Restoration to a facsimile of the Reference State could probably be done with expensive and intensive practices followed by long-term weed management. Clearing of the site followed by establishment of an overstory of noninvasive, introduced timber trees with a native understory as an intermediate step to native forest restoration may be worth exploring.
Community 5.1
Strawberry guava - christmasberry/kahili ginger
It is possible that shifts will eventually occur in the introduced species that dominate the site, particularly if tall stature, competitive tree species are present. This would change the mix of species present and may affect soil chemistry (e.g. nitrate availability or organic matter), but would not represent a transition to another state. Sites that are completely dominated by dense stands of strawberry guava typically show no indications (death or partial death of stands; emergence of potentially taller tree species) of yielding to change in the foreseeable future.
Forest overstory. Depending on local seed sources, invasive trees of moderate stature including strawberry guava, christmasberry, or common guava can dominate a given site initially, but strawberry guava generally will become dominant over time. Taller statured introduced trees including silkoak (Grevillea robusta), albizia or peacocksplume (Falcataria moluccana), and octopus tree (Schefflera actinophylla) could potentially emerge through the canopy of moderate stature species.
A few remnant ohia lehua tree often remain as emergents above the canopy of introduced species, but no seedling or saplings are likely to be present.
Forest understory. The tree overstory species are highly competitive and produce dense shade. A variety of introduced understory species is often present but in small numbers. Typical species include Koster’s curse or soapbush (Clidemia hirta), kahili ginger or Kahila garland-lily (Hedychium gardnerianum), and some shade tolerant grass species.
Scattered individuals of remnant native species such as kopiko, hapuu, and uluhe may remain in the understory.
Table 20. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover | 2-4% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 1-2% |
Grass/grasslike basal cover | 0.1-1.0% |
Forb basal cover | 0.0-0.1% |
Non-vascular plants | 3-5% |
Biological crusts | 0% |
Litter | 80-85% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0.1-1.0% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0.1-1.0% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 3-5% |
Table 21. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) | – |
---|---|
Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) | – |
Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) | – |
Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) | 0-1% |
Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) | 1-2% |
Tree snags** (hard***) | – |
Tree snags** (soft***) | – |
Tree snag count** (hard***) | 0-1 per acre |
Tree snag count** (hard***) | 2-3 per acre |
* Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 22. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
---|---|---|---|---|
<0.5 | 0% | 0% | 1-5% | 1-5% |
>0.5 <= 1 | 0% | 0-1% | 1-5% | 5-10% |
>1 <= 2 | 0-1% | 1-5% | 0-1% | 5-10% |
>2 <= 4.5 | 5-10% | 5-10% | – | – |
>4.5 <= 13 | 15-25% | 15-25% | – | – |
>13 <= 40 | 15-25% | 1-5% | – | – |
>40 <= 80 | 0-1% | – | – | – |
>80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
>120 | – | – | – | – |
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
State 1, Reference State, can transition to State 2, Naturalized Grassland, by clearing the forest with heavy machinery or by gradual clearing by allowing cattle access to the forest. Cattle eventually eat or destroy understory ferns, forbs, shrubs, and saplings, opening up the forest so that pasture grasses will thrive. Grasslands that were cleared by machinery may have broad cleared areas and isolated islands of trees that later grew in the shelter of slash piles. At higher, cooler elevations kikuyugrass and/or pangolagrass have been planted. At lower elevations where pastures are on old sugarcane plantations, guineagrass (a former weed in the plantations) has volunteered.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
Transition T1B
State 1 to 4
State 1, Reference State, can transition to State 4, Invaded Understory State, by gradual replacement of the native understory with introduced shrubs, vines, and small trees that outcompete the native understory species. This process is accelerated by ungulate foraging that disturbs the soil surface and directly destroys native plants and prevents their regeneration.
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1
It is possible to restore a facsimile of the Reference State from Naturalized Grassland. Weed control must be applied to grasses species and the many opportunistic plant species that will invade the site. Weed control is be a perpetual process to capture and maintain the site, with the intensity of control depending on the proximity of weed seed sources. Animal foraging (domestic and feral) must be eliminated by excluding all ungulates from the restoration site, but domestic ungulates would be useful to initially reduce grass cover and afterward to manage vegetation outside the restoration site perimeter. Extensive planting of native species would follow. Increased shade from trees growing on the site causes a shift from C4 (warm-season) grass dominance (typically guineagrass or kikuyugrass) to C3 (cool-season) shade-tolerant grasses, typically meadow ricegrass. Meadow ricegrass stands can be dense and detrimental to establishment of native plants. Attempts have been made to suppress meadow ricegrass by planting native shrubs and tree ferns that produce dense shade near the ground and litter that covers the grass. Biodegradable mulch such as cardboard covered with plant litter is very useful.
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3
State 2 Naturalized Grassland may be converted to State 3 Planted Timber State by mechanical site preparation and planting of timber species (usually eucalyptus) and weed control.
Transition T2B
State 2 to 5
Abandonment of State 2 Naturalized Grassland leads to rapid invasion by introduced tree species that take over from the initial growth of grasses and invasion of weedy forbs, vines, and shrubs. The most common tree species are silk oak, christmasberry, albizia, and common guava.
Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1
It is possible to restore a facsimile of State 1 Reference State from State 4 Invaded Understory State. Before restoration of native plants, alien understory plants must be eliminated by herbicidal weed control practices, and ungulates must be excluded from the restoration site by a suitable fence. Native species that have been eliminated or greatly reduced in numbers must be restored by replanting. Biodegradable mulch such as cardboard covered with plant litter is very useful for weed control around replanted native species. Long-term control of weeds will be necessary.
Transition T4A
State 4 to 2
State 4 Invaded Understory State may be converted to State 2 Naturalized Grassland State by mechanical clearing of introduced and remnant native understory plants; native overstory trees may be harvested for timber, destroyed, or left for shade. If leaving large native trees for shade, care must be taken to not damage near-surface roots within about 20 feet of the trees. Introduced pasture grasses may then be seeded or sprigged into the site. Herbicide applications will be necessary before and during pasture establishment to control reemerging weed species.
Transition T4B
State 4 to 5
The large native ohia lehua and koa trees that form the overstory of State 4 Invaded Understory State are unable to successfully regenerate due to the very dense, shady understory of introduced species. Eventually the large native trees die and are replaced by introduced tree species.
Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 2
State 5 Invaded Overstory and Understory State may be restored to State 2 Naturalized Grassland State by mechanical clearing of overstory and understory vegetation. Introduced forage grasses may then be seeded or sprigged into the site. Herbicide applications will be necessary before and during pasture establishment to control reemerging weed species.
Additional community tables
Table 23. Community 1.1 forest overstory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (in) | Basal area (square ft/acre) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tree
|
|||||||
koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 40–90 | 0–40 | 24–50 | – |
'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 50–90 | 25–30 | 16–40 | – |
olapalapa | CHTR2 | Cheirodendron trigynum | Native | 20–45 | 5–15 | – | – |
kolea lau nui | MYLE2 | Myrsine lessertiana | Native | 13–35 | 2–5 | – | – |
mirrorplant | COPRO | Coprosma | Native | 13–25 | 2–5 | – | – |
volcanic melicope | MEVO | Melicope volcanica | Native | 13–20 | 0–1 | – | – |
kukaemoa | MECL | Melicope clusiifolia | Native | 13–20 | 0–1 | – | – |
wild coffee | PSYCH | Psychotria | Native | 13–35 | 0.1–1 | – | – |
olomea | PESA3 | Perrottetia sandwicensis | Native | 13–20 | 0.1–1 | – | – |
Hawai'i holly | ILAN | Ilex anomala | Native | 13–40 | 0.1–1 | – | – |
lo'ulu | PRLA4 | Pritchardia lanigera | Native | 20–40 | 0–0.1 | – | – |
'ohe mauka | TEOA | Tetraplasandra oahuensis | Native | 13–20 | 0–0.1 | – | – |
Tree Fern
|
|||||||
hapu'u | CIGL | Cibotium glaucum | Native | 13–25 | 35–50 | – | – |
hapu'u li | CIME8 | Cibotium menziesii | Native | 13–25 | 5–10 | – | – |
Chamisso's manfern | CICH | Cibotium chamissoi | Native | 13–20 | 0–0.1 | – | – |
Table 24. Community 1.1 forest understory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
Hawai'i birdcatching sedge | UNUN | Uncinia uncinata | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
Hawai'i sedge | CAAL12 | Carex alligata | Native | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
rush | JUNCU | Juncus | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
Hawai'i woodrush | LUHA2 | Luzula hawaiiensis | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.1 | |
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
pua'akuhinia | ASME4 | Astelia menziesiana | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
bog stenogyne | STCA9 | Stenogyne calaminthoides | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
peperomia | PEPER | Peperomia | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
alpine woodfern | DRWA | Dryopteris wallichiana | Native | 2–3 | 1–5 | |
kolokolo | GRTE | Grammitis tenella | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
weeping fern | LETH6 | Lepisorus thunbergianus | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
Hawai'i potato fern | MADO | Marattia douglasii | Native | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
Boston swordfern | NEEX | Nephrolepis exaltata | Native | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
akolea | ATMI | Athyrium microphyllum | Native | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Old World forkedfern | DILI | Dicranopteris linearis | Native | 2–4 | 0.1–1 | |
Hawai'i twinsorus fern | DISA3 | Diplazium sandwichianum | Native | 2–4 | 0.1–1 | |
kilaw | DRGL3 | Dryopteris glabra | Native | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Pacific woodfern | DRSA | Dryopteris sandwicensis | Native | 2–4 | 0.1–1 | |
Hawai'i umbrella fern | STOW | Sticherus owhyensis | Native | 1–4 | 0.1–1 | |
royal tonguefern | ELCR2 | Elaphoglossum crassifolium | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
ekaha | ELHI3 | Elaphoglossum hirtum | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
palapalai | MIST4 | Microlepia strigosa | Native | 1–3 | 0.1–1 | |
spleenwort | ASPLE | Asplenium | Native | 1–3 | 0.1–1 | |
piipiilau manamana | ASLO5 | Asplenium lobulatum | Native | 1–3 | 0.1–1 | |
vandenboschia | VANDE | Vandenboschia | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
Hudson's air fern | PNHU | Pneumatopteris hudsoniana | Native | 1–3 | 0.1–1 | |
Hawai'i air fern | PNSA | Pneumatopteris sandwicensis | Native | 1–3 | 0.1–1 | |
flatfork fern | PSCO3 | Psilotum complanatum | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
whisk fern | PSNU | Psilotum nudum | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
Cretan brake | PTCR2 | Pteris cretica | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
waimakanui | PTEX | Pteris excelsa | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
wahini noho mauna | ADTA | Adenophorus tamariscinus | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
palaihinahina | HYLA2 | Hymenophyllum lanceolatum | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.1 | |
Chinese creepingfern | ODCH | Odontosoria chinensis | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
false beech fern | PSKE | Pseudophegopteris keraudreniana | Native | 1–10 | 0–0.1 | |
ama'u | SAPA11 | Sadleria pallida | Native | 2–5 | 0–0.1 | |
globular maiden fern | THGL | Thelypteris globulifera | Native | 1–3 | 0–0.1 | |
loulu | COPI3 | Coniogramme pilosa | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
kanawao | BRAR6 | Broussaisia arguta | Native | 2–8 | 1–10 | |
Kauai clermontia | CLCL | Clermontia clermontioides | Native | 2–6 | 0–1 | |
Waimea pipturus | PIAL2 | Pipturus albidus | Native | 2–13 | 0.1–1 | |
'ilihia | CYPL5 | Cyrtandra platyphylla | Native | 1–3 | 0.1–1 | |
cyrtandra | CYRTA | Cyrtandra | Native | 1–3 | 0.1–1 | |
ohelo kau la'au | VACA8 | Vaccinium calycinum | Native | 2–6 | 0.1–1 | |
labordia | LABOR | Labordia | Native | 2–4 | 0–0.1 | |
largeflower false lobelia | TRGR8 | Trematolobelia grandifolia | Native | 2–6 | 0–0.1 | |
koli'i | TRMA8 | Trematolobelia macrostachys | Native | 2–6 | 0–0.1 | |
Kaiholena cyanea | CYST5 | Cyanea stictophylla | Native | 2–8 | 0–0.1 | |
naupaka | SCAEV | Scaevola | Native | 2–4 | 0–0.1 | |
anini | EUSA6 | Eurya sandwicensis | Native | 2–3 | 0–0.1 | |
'aku 'aku | CYTR6 | Cyanea tritomantha | Native | 2–8 | 0–0.1 | |
kuhi'aikamo'owahie | LOHY | Lobelia hypoleuca | Native | 2–5 | 0–0.1 | |
hillside clermontia | CLLI3 | Clermontia lindseyana | Native | 2–6 | 0–0.1 | |
smallflower clermontia | CLPA8 | Clermontia parviflora | Native | 2–13 | 0–0.1 | |
Tree
|
||||||
olapalapa | CHTR2 | Cheirodendron trigynum | Native | 2–13 | 0.1–1 | |
olomea | PESA3 | Perrottetia sandwicensis | Native | 2–13 | 0.1–1 | |
Hawai'i holly | ILAN | Ilex anomala | Native | 2–13 | 0.1–1 | |
kolea lau nui | MYLE2 | Myrsine lessertiana | Native | 2–13 | 0.1–1 | |
wild coffee | PSYCH | Psychotria | Native | 2–13 | 0.1–1 | |
cheesewood | PITTO | Pittosporum | Native | 5–13 | 0.1–1 | |
mirrorplant | COPRO | Coprosma | Native | 2–13 | 0.1–1 | |
ha'a | ANPL2 | Antidesma platyphyllum | Native | 2–13 | 0.1–1 | |
hame | ANPU2 | Antidesma pulvinatum | Native | 2–13 | 0.1–1 | |
variable starviolet | HETE21 | Hedyotis terminalis | Native | 2–13 | 0.1–1 | |
volcanic melicope | MEVO | Melicope volcanica | Native | 2–13 | 0–0.1 | |
kukaemoa | MECL | Melicope clusiifolia | Native | 2–13 | 0–0.1 | |
'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 2–13 | 0–0.1 | |
koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 2–13 | 0–0.1 | |
'ahakea | BOTI | Bobea timonioides | Native | 2–13 | 0–0.1 | |
olona | TOLA | Touchardia latifolia | Native | 2–10 | 0–0.1 | |
hopue | URGL | Urera glabra | Native | 2–10 | 0–0.1 | |
kokea lau li'i | MYSA2 | Myrsine sandwicensis | Native | 2–13 | 0–0.1 | |
Tree Fern
|
||||||
hapu'u | CIGL | Cibotium glaucum | Native | 2–13 | 25–40 | |
hapu'u li | CIME8 | Cibotium menziesii | Native | 2–13 | 1–5 | |
Chamisso's manfern | CICH | Cibotium chamissoi | Native | 2–13 | 0–0.1 | |
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
Hawai'i blackberry | RUHA | Rubus hawaiensis | Native | 2–4 | 0.1–1 | |
Maile | ALST11 | Alyxia stellata | Native | 2–8 | 0.1–1 | |
Hawai'i greenbrier | SMME | Smilax melastomifolia | Native | 2–30 | 0.1–1 | |
'ie'ie | FRAR | Freycinetia arborea | Native | 2–40 | 0.1–1 | |
kilioe | EMPA | Embelia pacifica | Native | 2–4 | 0–0.1 | |
Hawai'i phyllostegia | PHFL6 | Phyllostegia floribunda | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.1 | |
velvet phyllostegia | PHVE8 | Phyllostegia velutina | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
Hawai'i jadevine | STRU4 | Strongylodon ruber | Native | 1–40 | 0–0.1 |
Table 25. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
1 | Naturalized Warm Season Tallgrasses | 11200–14000 | ||||
guineagrass | URMA3 | Urochloa maxima | 11200–14000 | – | ||
elephant grass | PEPU2 | Pennisetum purpureum | 0–140 | – | ||
2 | Naturalized Warm Season Midgrasses | 0–700 | ||||
kikuyugrass | PECL2 | Pennisetum clandestinum | 0–500 | – | ||
digitgrass | DIER | Digitaria eriantha | 0–200 | – | ||
shortleaf spikesedge | KYBR | Kyllinga brevifolia | 0–140 | – | ||
hilograss | PACO14 | Paspalum conjugatum | 0–140 | – | ||
Vasey's grass | PAUR2 | Paspalum urvillei | 0–140 | – | ||
Colombian bluestem | SCCO10 | Schizachyrium condensatum | 0–140 | – | ||
marsh bristlegrass | SEPA10 | Setaria parviflora | 0–140 | – | ||
smut grass | SPIN4 | Sporobolus indicus | 0–140 | – | ||
broomsedge bluestem | ANVI2 | Andropogon virginicus | 0–140 | – | ||
Forb
|
||||||
3 | Naturalized Forbs | 140–700 | ||||
threeflower ticktrefoil | DETR4 | Desmodium triflorum | 140–420 | – | ||
perennial soybean | NEWI2 | Neonotonia wightii | 140–420 | – | ||
common sowthistle | SOOL | Sonchus oleraceus | 0–140 | – | ||
lilac tasselflower | EMSO | Emilia sonchifolia | 0–140 | – | ||
spiny amaranth | AMSP | Amaranthus spinosus | 0–140 | – | ||
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
4 | Naturalized Shrubs and Small Trees | 140–700 | ||||
cure for all | PLCA10 | Pluchea carolinensis | 0–140 | – | ||
guava | PSGU | Psidium guajava | 0–140 | – | ||
castorbean | RICO3 | Ricinus communis | 0–140 | – | ||
Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | 0–140 | – |
Table 26. Community 2.2 forest understory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
hilograss | PACO14 | Paspalum conjugatum | Introduced | 1–2 | 15–25 | |
common carpetgrass | AXFI | Axonopus fissifolius | Introduced | 0.5–2 | 10–25 | |
guineagrass | URMA3 | Urochloa maxima | Introduced | 2–5 | 10–25 | |
kikuyugrass | PECL2 | Pennisetum clandestinum | Introduced | 1–2 | 5–15 | |
shortleaf spikesedge | KYBR | Kyllinga brevifolia | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 1–5 | |
broomsedge bluestem | ANVI2 | Andropogon virginicus | Introduced | 2–3 | 1–5 | |
Colombian bluestem | SCCO10 | Schizachyrium condensatum | Introduced | 2–3 | 1–5 | |
marsh bristlegrass | SEPA10 | Setaria parviflora | Introduced | 1–2 | 1–5 | |
sweet vernalgrass | ANOD | Anthoxanthum odoratum | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
wild sugarcane | SASP | Saccharum spontaneum | Introduced | 4–6 | 0–1 | |
manyspike flatsedge | CYPO | Cyperus polystachyos | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
smut grass | SPIN4 | Sporobolus indicus | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
lilac tasselflower | EMSO | Emilia sonchifolia | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
common sowthistle | SOOL | Sonchus oleraceus | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
spiny amaranth | AMSP | Amaranthus spinosus | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
common sheep sorrel | RUAC3 | Rumex acetosella | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
pinkhead smartweed | POCA21 | Polygonum capitatum | Introduced | 0.2–0.5 | 0.1–1 | |
climbing dayflower | CODI5 | Commelina diffusa | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
ticktrefoil | DESMO | Desmodium | Introduced | 0.5–2 | 0–0.1 | |
bull thistle | CIVU | Cirsium vulgare | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–0.1 | |
spreading snakeroot | AGRI2 | Ageratina riparia | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
soft elephantsfoot | ELMO5 | Elephantopus mollis | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
hairy cat's ear | HYRA3 | Hypochaeris radicata | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–0.1 | |
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
western brackenfern | PTAQ | Pteridium aquilinum | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
Old World forkedfern | DILI | Dicranopteris linearis | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
cure for all | PLCA10 | Pluchea carolinensis | Introduced | 2–6 | 1–2 | |
Tree
|
||||||
guava | PSGU | Psidium guajava | Introduced | 4–10 | 1–2 | |
Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 2–8 | 1–2 | |
silkoak | GRRO | Grevillea robusta | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
octopus tree | SCAC2 | Schefflera actinophylla | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
peacocksplume | FAMO | Falcataria moluccana | Introduced | 1–4 | 0–0.1 | |
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
sawtooth blackberry | RUAR2 | Rubus argutus | Introduced | 2–4 | 0.1–1 | |
yellow Himalayan raspberry | RUEL3 | Rubus ellipticus | Introduced | 2–4 | 0.1–1 | |
West Indian raspberry | RURO | Rubus rosifolius | Introduced | 2–4 | 0.1–1 |
Table 27. Community 2.3 forest overstory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (in) | Basal area (square ft/acre) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tree
|
|||||||
Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 6–13 | 1–2 | – | – |
peacocksplume | FAMO | Falcataria moluccana | Introduced | 20–40 | 0–0.1 | – | – |
Table 28. Community 2.3 forest understory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
hilograss | PACO14 | Paspalum conjugatum | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 15–25 | |
common carpetgrass | AXFI | Axonopus fissifolius | Introduced | 0.5–2 | 15–25 | |
common carpetgrass | AXFI | Axonopus fissifolius | Introduced | 0.5–2 | 15–25 | |
broomsedge bluestem | ANVI2 | Andropogon virginicus | Introduced | 1–3 | 5–10 | |
Colombian bluestem | SCCO10 | Schizachyrium condensatum | Introduced | 1–3 | 5–10 | |
marsh bristlegrass | SEPA10 | Setaria parviflora | Introduced | 1–2 | 2–5 | |
shortleaf spikesedge | KYBR | Kyllinga brevifolia | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 3–5 | |
manyspike flatsedge | CYPO | Cyperus polystachyos | Native | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
smut grass | SPIN4 | Sporobolus indicus | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
guineagrass | URMA3 | Urochloa maxima | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
kikuyugrass | PECL2 | Pennisetum clandestinum | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
spiny amaranth | AMSP | Amaranthus spinosus | Introduced | 1–3 | 5–10 | |
pinkhead smartweed | POCA21 | Polygonum capitatum | Introduced | 0.1–0.5 | 0.1–1 | |
spreading snakeroot | AGRI2 | Ageratina riparia | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
soft elephantsfoot | ELMO5 | Elephantopus mollis | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
lilac tasselflower | EMSO | Emilia sonchifolia | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
common sowthistle | SOOL | Sonchus oleraceus | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
cure for all | PLCA10 | Pluchea carolinensis | Introduced | 2–5 | 5–10 | |
Tree
|
||||||
guava | PSGU | Psidium guajava | Introduced | 4–13 | 5–10 | |
Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 4–13 | 1–2 | |
silkoak | GRRO | Grevillea robusta | Introduced | 4–13 | 0–0.1 | |
octopus tree | SCAC2 | Schefflera actinophylla | Introduced | 2–4 | 0–0.1 | |
peacocksplume | FAMO | Falcataria moluccana | Introduced | 2–4 | 0–0.1 | |
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
sawtooth blackberry | RUAR2 | Rubus argutus | Introduced | 2–4 | 1–5 | |
yellow Himalayan raspberry | RUEL3 | Rubus ellipticus | Introduced | 2–4 | 1–5 | |
West Indian raspberry | RURO | Rubus rosifolius | Introduced | 2–4 | 1–5 |
Table 29. Community 3.1 forest overstory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (in) | Basal area (square ft/acre) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tree
|
|||||||
gum | EUCAL | Eucalyptus | Introduced | 50–90 | 85–95 | – | – |
Table 30. Community 3.1 forest understory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
guineagrass | URMA3 | Urochloa maxima | Introduced | 2–3 | 5–60 | |
weeping grass | MIST | Microlaena stipoides | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
basketgrass | OPHI | Oplismenus hirtellus | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
hilograss | PACO14 | Paspalum conjugatum | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
Kahila garland-lily | HEGA | Hedychium gardnerianum | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–0.1 | |
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
soapbush | CLHI3 | Clidemia hirta | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
Tree
|
||||||
strawberry guava | PSCA | Psidium cattleianum | Introduced | 2–10 | 0–1 | |
parrotweed | BOFR2 | Bocconia frutescens | Introduced | 4–10 | 0–0.1 | |
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
shoofly | CADE15 | Caesalpinia decapetala | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–0.1 | |
yellow Himalayan raspberry | RUEL3 | Rubus ellipticus | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–0.1 | |
West Indian raspberry | RURO | Rubus rosifolius | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–0.1 |
Table 31. Community 4.1 forest overstory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (in) | Basal area (square ft/acre) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tree
|
|||||||
strawberry guava | PSCA | Psidium cattleianum | Introduced | 13–25 | 10–30 | – | – |
'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 40–90 | 10–20 | – | – |
koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 40–90 | 1–20 | – | – |
wild coffee | PSYCH | Psychotria | Native | 15–30 | 0.1–1 | – | – |
octopus tree | SCAC2 | Schefflera actinophylla | Introduced | 20–40 | 0.1–1 | – | – |
Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 13–20 | 0.1–1 | – | – |
silkoak | GRRO | Grevillea robusta | Introduced | 25–60 | 0–0.1 | – | – |
Table 32. Community 4.1 forest understory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
basketgrass | OPHI | Oplismenus hirtellus | Introduced | 1–2 | 1–5 | |
hilograss | PACO14 | Paspalum conjugatum | Introduced | 0.5–2 | 1–5 | |
guineagrass | URMA3 | Urochloa maxima | Introduced | 2–4 | 0–1 | |
weeping grass | MIST | Microlaena stipoides | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Kahila garland-lily | HEGA | Hedychium gardnerianum | Introduced | 2–4 | 0.1–1 | |
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
Philippine ground orchid | SPPL | Spathoglottis plicata | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Japanese thimbleweed | ANHU | Anemone hupehensis | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–0.1 | |
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | Introduced | 1–2 | 10–25 | |
parasitic maiden fern | THPA4 | Thelypteris parasitica | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
golden polypody | PHAU6 | Phlebodium aureum | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Japanese netvein hollyfern | CYFA2 | Cyrtomium falcatum | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
rough maidenhair | ADHI | Adiantum hispidulum | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–0.1 | |
spleenwort | ASPLE | Asplenium | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
soapbush | CLHI3 | Clidemia hirta | Introduced | 2–6 | 5–15 | |
princess-flower | TIUR | Tibouchina urvilleana | Introduced | 2–13 | 10–15 | |
night jessamine | CENO | Cestrum nocturnum | Introduced | 2–8 | 0.1–1 | |
Tree
|
||||||
strawberry guava | PSCA | Psidium cattleianum | Introduced | 4–13 | 5–15 | |
strawberry guava | PSCA | Psidium cattleianum | Introduced | 2–4 | 1–5 | |
wild coffee | PSYCH | Psychotria | Native | 4–13 | 0.1–1 | |
Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 4–13 | 0.1–1 | |
guava | PSGU | Psidium guajava | Introduced | 4–13 | 0.1–1 | |
octopus tree | SCAC2 | Schefflera actinophylla | Introduced | 4–13 | 0–1 | |
silkoak | GRRO | Grevillea robusta | Introduced | 4–13 | 0–0.1 | |
Tree Fern
|
||||||
hapu'u | CIGL | Cibotium glaucum | Native | 4–13 | 0–1 | |
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
'ie'ie | FRAR | Freycinetia arborea | Native | 1–30 | 0–1 | |
yellow Himalayan raspberry | RUEL3 | Rubus ellipticus | Introduced | 2–4 | 0.1–1 | |
West Indian raspberry | RURO | Rubus rosifolius | Introduced | 2–3 | 0.1–1 |
Table 33. Community 5.1 forest overstory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (in) | Basal area (square ft/acre) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tree
|
|||||||
strawberry guava | PSCA | Psidium cattleianum | Introduced | 13–25 | 15–25 | – | – |
Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 13–20 | 1–3 | – | – |
silkoak | GRRO | Grevillea robusta | Introduced | 40–60 | 0.1–1 | – | – |
octopus tree | SCAC2 | Schefflera actinophylla | Introduced | 20–40 | 0.1–1 | – | – |
'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 40–80 | 0–1 | – | – |
koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 40–80 | 0–1 | – | – |
wild coffee | PSYCH | Psychotria | Native | 13–25 | 0.1–1 | – | – |
peacocksplume | FAMO | Falcataria moluccana | Introduced | 30–60 | 0–0.1 | – | – |
parrotweed | BOFR2 | Bocconia frutescens | Introduced | 13–20 | 0–0.1 | – | – |
Table 34. Community 5.1 forest understory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
basketgrass | OPHI | Oplismenus hirtellus | Introduced | 1–2 | 3–5 | |
hilograss | PACO14 | Paspalum conjugatum | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 3–5 | |
weeping grass | MIST | Microlaena stipoides | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
Kahila garland-lily | HEGA | Hedychium gardnerianum | Introduced | 2–3 | 0.1–1 | |
Philippine ground orchid | SPPL | Spathoglottis plicata | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Japanese thimbleweed | ANHU | Anemone hupehensis | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–0.1 | |
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | Introduced | 1–2 | 15–25 | |
golden polypody | PHAU6 | Phlebodium aureum | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
rough maidenhair | ADHI | Adiantum hispidulum | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
parasitic maiden fern | THPA4 | Thelypteris parasitica | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Japanese netvein hollyfern | CYFA2 | Cyrtomium falcatum | Introduced | 1–2 | 0.1–1 | |
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
soapbush | CLHI3 | Clidemia hirta | Introduced | 2–6 | 10–15 | |
princess-flower | TIUR | Tibouchina urvilleana | Introduced | 2–13 | 10–15 | |
night jessamine | CENO | Cestrum nocturnum | Introduced | 2–8 | 0.1–1 | |
Tree
|
||||||
strawberry guava | PSCA | Psidium cattleianum | Introduced | 4–13 | 10–25 | |
octopus tree | SCAC2 | Schefflera actinophylla | Introduced | 4–13 | 0.1–1 | |
parrotweed | BOFR2 | Bocconia frutescens | Introduced | 4–13 | 0.1–1 | |
Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 4–13 | 0.1–1 | |
guava | PSGU | Psidium guajava | Introduced | 4–13 | 0–0.1 | |
wild coffee | PSYCH | Psychotria | Native | 4–13 | 0–0.1 | |
peacocksplume | FAMO | Falcataria moluccana | Introduced | 4–13 | 0–0.1 | |
silkoak | GRRO | Grevillea robusta | Introduced | 4–13 | 0–0.1 | |
Tree Fern
|
||||||
hapu'u | CIGL | Cibotium glaucum | Native | 4–8 | 0–0.1 | |
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
shoofly | CADE15 | Caesalpinia decapetala | Introduced | 2–6 | 1–5 | |
yellow Himalayan raspberry | RUEL3 | Rubus ellipticus | Introduced | 2–5 | 3–5 | |
West Indian raspberry | RURO | Rubus rosifolius | Introduced | 2–5 | 0.5–1 |
Interpretations
Animal community
Native Wildlife
This ecological site provides habitat to the following native birds: elepaio (Chasiempis sandwichensis), amakihi (Hemignathus virens), apapane (Himatione sanguinea), and iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea) omao (Myadestes obscurus), Hawaiian crow or alala (Corvus hawaiensis), akepa (Loxops coccineus), akiapolaau (Hemignathus wilsoni). It also is home to the Hawaiian hoary bat or opeapea (Lasiurus cenarius semotus). These species may be encountered within all community phases but are most prevalent in open canopy native forest and forest adjacent to clearings. Community phases that provide open grassland or savannah-like settings provide habitat for the native Hawaiian hawk, or io (Buteo solitarius) and Hawaiian owl or pueo (Asio flammeus spp. sandwichensis).
A large number of native bird species have gone extinct both before and after European contact.
Introduced Wildlife
This ecological site provides habitat to a variety of introduced birds. Species such as wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), Erckel’s francolin (Pternistis erckelii), black francolin (Francolinus francolinus), and kalij pheasant (Lophura leucomelanos) are considered to be game birds.
Feral pigs, sheep, goats and cattle are common. They provide hunting opportunities but are very destructive to native vegetation. Public sport hunting typically does not have a major impact on their populations, especially in remote areas.
Introduced wildlife species are able to utilize all community phases within the ecological site.
Grazing Interpretations
The following table lists suggested initial stocking rates for cattle under the Forage Value Rating system for only community phase 2.1, with guinea grass. For kikuyugrass pastures on this ecological site, refer to grazing interpretations in Ecological site Description F160XY504 Loa Ustic-Dry Udic Forest. The following are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Sometimes the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community in this ecological site description. Because of this, a field visit is recommended to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. Under more intensive grazing management, improved harvest efficiencies may result in an increased stocking rate.
Forage Value Rating (note 1)
Very High (note 2) 0.20-0.22 acre/AUM (note 3) 5.13-4.49 AUM/acre
High 0.22-0.26 acre/AUM 4.49-3.85 AUM/acre
Moderate 0.26-0.39 acre/AUM 3.85-2.56 AUM/acre
Low 0.39-+ 2.56-+
(note 1) The Forage Value Rating System is not an ecological evaluation of community phase 2.2. It is a utilitarian rating of the existing forage value for that specific plant community.
(note 2) Conservationists must use considerable judgment, because some pastures in the Very High forage class could be producing less than normal volumes of forage, and adjustments would need to be made in the initial stocking rate.
(3) Stocking rates vary in accordance with such factors as kind and class of livestock or wildlife, season of use, and fluctuations in climate. Figures shown are calculated assuming a 30% adjustment factor to account for harvest efficiency and the “take half – leave half” principle. Actual use records and on-site inventories for individual sites, together with a determination of the degree to which the sites have been grazed, offer the most reliable basis for developing initial stocking rates.
Community phase 2.1 is suitable for grazing by all kinds and classes of livestock, at any season, particularly cattle. This site is suited for grazing by both cow-calf operations and stocker operations. However, sheep can be grazed on this site as well. This site is poorly suited to continuous year-long use if the plant community is to be maintained. Herbaceous forage can be deficient in protein during the drier months.
Hydrological functions
Water infiltration and retention tend to be high on these deep to very deep volcanic ash soils. The deep, 4-tiered canopy and heavy litter layer of the Reference State keep soil erosion to a minimum.
The tall, dense grass growth in well-managed grassland (community phase 2.1) provides considerable protection against erosion. Phases 2.2 and 2.3 have lower-stature, less dense vegetation and more bare ground that provide somewhat less erosion protection.
States with large amounts of introduced vegetation (States 3, 4, 5, and 6) apparently would provide good erosion protection.
Recreational uses
Hiking, hunting, and bird watching are common recreational uses in this ecological site. Good examples of the Reference Community can be accessed by foot trails in State Forests. Public roads provide access to the other community phases.
Wood products
There is excellent potential for production of timber in this ecological site, including eucalyptus and high-value specialty woods such as koa.
Very little site index information is available for Hawaiian forests, as tropical trees typically do not form annual tree rings from which tree age can be estimated. Long-term measurements have been made of some tree plantations, primarily on introduced timber species and on a limited number of soils.
Other products
The Reference State can provide limited harvests of maile (Alyxia stellata) vines for leis and edible ferns.
Other information
Definitions
These definitions have been greatly simplified for brevity and do not cover every aspect of each topic.
Aa lava: A type of basaltic lava having a rough, jagged, clinkery surface and a vesicular interior.
Alluvial: Materials or processes associated with transportation and/or deposition by running water.
Aquic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is free of dissolved oxygen because it is saturated by water. This regime typically exists in bogs or swamps.
Aridic soil moisture regime: A regime in which defined parts of the soil are, in normal years, dry for more than half of the growing season and moist for less than 90 consecutive days during the growing season. In Hawaii it is associated with hot, dry areas with plants such as kiawe, wiliwili, and buffelgrass. The terms aridic and torric are basically the same.
Ash field: a land area covered by a thick or distinctive deposit of volcanic ash that can be traced to a specific source and has well defined boundaries. The term “ash flow” is erroneously used in the Physiographic section of this ESD due to a flaw in the national database.
Ashy: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of less than 30 percent; a soil that holds relatively less water than “medial” and “hydrous” soils.
Available water capacity: The amount of soil water available to plants to the depth of the first root-restricting layer.
Basal area or basal cover: The cross sectional area of the stem or stems of a plant or of all plants in a stand.
Blue rock: The dense, hard, massive lava that forms the inner core of an aa lava flow.
Bulk density: the weight of dry soil per unit of volume. Lower bulk density indicates a greater amount of pore space that can hold water and air in a soil.
CaCO3 equivalent: The amount of free lime in a soil. Free lime exists as solid material and typically occurs in regions with a dry climate.
Canopy cover: The percentage of ground covered by the vertical projection downward of the outermost perimeter of the spread of plant foliage. Small openings within the canopy are included.
Community pathway: A description of the causes of shifts between community phases. A community pathway is reversible and is attributable to succession, natural disturbances, short-term climatic variation, and facilitating practices, such as grazing management.
Community phase: A unique assemblage of plants and associated dynamic soil properties within a state.
Dominant species: Plant species or species groups that exert considerable influence upon a community due to size, abundance, or cover.
Drainage class: The frequency and duration of a water table in a soil. There are seven drainage classes, ranging from “excessively drained” (soils with very rare or very deep water tables) to “well drained” (soils that provide ample water for plant growth but are not so wet as to inhibit root growth) to “very poorly drained” (soils with a water table at or near the surface during much of the growing season that inhibits growth of most plants).
Electrical conductivity (EC): A measure of the salinity of a soil. The standard unit is deciSiemens per meter (dS/m), which is numerically equivalent to millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). An EC greater than about 4 dS/m indicates a salinity level that is unfavorable to growth of most plants.
Friability: A soil consistency term pertaining to the ease of crumbling of soils.
Hydrous: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 100 percent or more; a soil that holds more water than “medial” or “ashy” soils.
Ion exchange capacity: The ability of soil materials such as clay or organic matter to retain ions (which may be plant nutrients) and to release those ions for uptake by roots.
Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) or higher and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Isomesic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 47 degrees F (8 degrees C) or higher but lower than 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Isothermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) or higher but lower than 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Kipuka: An area of land surrounded by younger (more recent) lava. Soils and plant communities within a kipuka are older than, and often quite different from, those on the surrounding surfaces.
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): A geographic area defined by NRCS that is characterized by a particular pattern of soils, climate, water resources, and land uses. The island of Hawaii contains nine MLRAs, some of which also occur on other islands in the state.
Makai: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the sea.”
Mauka: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the mountain” or “inland.”
Medial: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent; a soil that holds an amount of water intermediate to “hydrous” or “ashy” soils.
Naturalized plant community: A community dominated by adapted, introduced species. It is a relatively stable community resulting from secondary succession after disturbance. Most grasslands in Hawaii are in this category.
Pahoehoe lava: A type of basaltic lava with a smooth, billowy, or rope-like surface and vesicular interior.
Parent material: Unconsolidated and chemically weathered material from which a soil is developed.
Perudic soil moisture regime: A very wet regime found where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration in all months of normal years. On the island of Hawaii, this regime is found on top of Kohala and on parts of the windward side of Mauna Kea.
pH: The numerical expression of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a soil sample. A pH of 7 is neutral; a pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is basic.
Phosphorus adsorption: The ability of soil materials to tightly retain phosphorous ions, which are a plant nutrient. Some volcanic ash soils retain phosphorus so strongly that it is partly unavailable to plants.
Reference community phase: The phase exhibiting the characteristics of the reference state and containing the full complement of plant species that historically occupied the site. It is the community phase used to classify an ecological site.
Reference state: A state that describes the ecological potential and natural or historical range of variability of an ecological site.
Restoration pathway: A term describing the environmental conditions and practices that are required to recover a state that has undergone a transition.
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR): A measure of the amount of dissolved sodium relative to calcium and magnesium in the soil water. SAR values higher than 13 create soil conditions unfavorable to most plants.
Soil moisture regime: A term referring to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa (the crop wilting point) in the soil or in specific horizons during periods of the year.
Soil temperature regime: A defined class based on mean annual soil temperature and on differences between summer and winter temperatures at a specified depth.
Soil reaction: Numerical expression in pH units of the relative acidity or alkalinity or a soil.
State: One or more community phases and their soil properties that interact with the abiotic and biotic environment to produce persistent functional and structural attributes associated with a characteristic range of variability.
State-and-transition model: A method used to display information about relationships between vegetation, soil, animals, hydrology, disturbances, and management actions on an ecological site.
Torric soil moisture regime: See Aridic soil moisture regime.
Transition: A term describing the biotic or abiotic variables or events that contribute to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states.
Udic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years, and so provides ample moisture for plants. In Hawaii it is associated with forests in which hapuu (tree ferns) are usually moderately to highly abundant.
Ustic soil moisture regime: A regime in which moisture is limited but present at a time when conditions are suitable for plant growth. In Hawaii it usually is associated with dry forests and subalpine shrublands.
Supporting information
Type locality
Location 1: Hawaii County, HI | |
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Latitude | 19° 14′ 1″ |
Longitude | 155° 30′ 55″ |
General legal description | USGS Quad: Punaluu. 2.5 miles directly mauka of Pahala in Kau Forest Reserve. Foot trail near upper Paauau Landing Strip. Walk 0.5 mile up trail and then 100 yards to SW into forest. |
Other references
Armstrong RW. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Athens JS. Ch. 12 Hawaiian Native Lowland Vegetation in Prehistory in Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands – Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change. Kirch PV and TL Hunt, eds. 1997. Yale U. Press, New Haven.
Craighill ES and EG Handy. 1991. Native Planters in Old Hawaii – Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI
Cuddihy LW and CP Stone. 1990. Alteration of Native Hawaiian Vegetation: Effects of Humans, Their Activities and Introductions. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Study Unit.
Hazlett RW and DW Hyndman. 1996. Roadside Geology of Hawaii. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula MT.
Henke LA. 1929. A Survey of Livestock in Hawaii. Research Publication No. 5. University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Jacobi J.. 1989. Vegetation Maps of the Upland Plant Communities on the Islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai. Technical Report 68. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa and National Park Service.
Kirch PV. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians in the Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Science 36(1):1-14.
Kirch PV. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Kirch PV. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Little EL Jr. and RG Skolmen. 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and Introduced). US Department of Agriculture-US Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 679. (out of print). Available at www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/misc/ah679.pdf
Loh RK. 2004. Complete vegetation map of Hawaii Volcanoes National park below 8,000 ft elevation. US National Park Service.
Mueller-Dombois D and FR Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
Palmer DD. 2003. Hawaii’s Ferns and Fern Allies. University of Hawai`i Press, Honolulu.
Pratt HD. 1998. A Pocket Guide to Hawaii’s Trees and Shrubs. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.
Ripperton JC and EY Hosaka. 1942. Vegetation zones of Hawai`i. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 89:1-60.
Rock JF. The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands. 1st edition 1913, reprinted 1974, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, VT and Tokyo, Japan.
Shoji SD, M Nanzyo, and R Dahlgren. 1993. Volcanic Ash Soils: Genesis, Properties and Utilization. Elsevier, New York.
Sohmer SH and R Gustafson. 2000. Plants and Flowers of Hawai`i. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Steadman DW. 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science 267:1123-1131.
USDI-USGS. 2006. A GAP Analysis of Hawaii. Final Report and Data.
Vitousek P. 2004. Nutrient Cycling and Limitation: Hawaii as a Model Ecosystem. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford.
Wagner WL, DR Herbst, and SH Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised Edition. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.
Whistler WA. 1995. Wayside Plants of the Islands: a Guide to the Lowland Flora of the Pacific Islands. Isle Botanica, Honolulu.
Contributors
David Clausnitzer
Loretta Metz
Joseph May
Acknowledgments
Assistance, advice, review, and/or insights:
Mick Castillo
Michael Constantinides, NRCS-PIA
Susan Cordell, USFS
Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch
David Leonard, volunteer
JB Friday, UH Forestry Extension
Rick Gordon
Basil Hansen, The Nature Conservancy
Jennifer Higashino, USFWS and NRCS
Flint Hughes, USFS
Chris Jasper, NRCS Soil Survey
Mel Johansen, The Nature Conservancy
Kathy Kawakami, US Army Pohakuloa Training Ground
Rhonda Loh, Volcanoes National Park
Kamehameha Schools/Bishop Estate
Miles Nakahara, Hawaii DOFAW
Laura Nelson, The Nature Conservancy and NRCS
Patrick Niemeyer, NRCS Soil Survey
Billy Paris, rancher
John Pipan
Jon Price, USGS
John Replogle, The Nature Conservancy
Paul Scowcroft, USFS
Earl Spence, grazing consultant
Jim Thain
Mike Tomich
Quentin Tomich
Tim Tunison, Volcanoes National Park
Jill Wagner, consultant, Future Forests
Rick Warschauer
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) | |
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Contact for lead author | |
Date | |
Approved by | |
Approval date | |
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
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Presence of water flow patterns:
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Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
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Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
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Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
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Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
-
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
-
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
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Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
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Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
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Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
-
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
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Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
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Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
-
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
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Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
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Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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