Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site VX160X01X504
Ustic-Dry Udic Forest
Accessed: 11/21/2024
General information
Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 160X–Subhumid and Humid Intermediate and High Mountain Slopes
This MLRA occurs in the State of Hawaii on the Big Island of Hawaii and to a small extent on Maui. Elevation ranges from 1000 to 9000 feet (300 to 2725 meters). Slopes are moderate to steep. Topography is sloping to hilly, and cinder cones are common. Lava flows are basaltic or andesitic aa or pahoehoe lava. Aa may form outcrops at higher elevations, but most of the area is covered with material weathered from deep volcanic ash. Areas of volcanic sand and gravel alluvium exist. Average annual precipitation ranges from 20 to 75 inches (500 to 1875 millimeters). Most of the rainfall occurs during kona storms from November through March. In some areas afternoon fog accumulation at higher elevations adds significant moisture to the soil by fog drip and ameliorates evapotranspiration. Average annual air temperatures range from 50 to 71 degrees F (10 to 20 degrees C), with little seasonal variation. Strong winds are frequent in the saddle between Mauna Kea and Kohala volcanoes. The dominant soil order is Andisols with an isomesic soil temperature regime and ustic or udic soil moisture regime. Native vegetation consists of forests and rangelands that can include medium to tall statured forests, savannas, and grasslands.
Classification relationships
This ecological site occurs within Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 160 - Subhumid and Humid Intermediate and High Mountain Slopes.
Ecological site concept
This ecological site is a relatively dry forest of tall koa and ohia lehua. It exists in two separate locations. One is in the section of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park that is mauka of South Point, near the western boundary of the Kau State Forest Reserve. The other it at the eastern boundary of Kau State Forest Preserve on State lands, including Kapapala Ranch, and within the section of HVNP that is mauka of Kilauea Crater.
The central concept of the Ustic-Dry Udic Forest is of well drained, very shallow to deep Andisols formed in young deposits of volcanic ash ranging from 750 to 5,000 years old. This ecological site exists in two narrow zones where annual air temperatures and rainfall create transitionally warm to cool (isothermic to isomesic), seasonally dry to moist (ustic to udic) soil conditions that gradually differ from the rain forest soils that adjoin them. The tall overstory tree species are koa (Acacia koa) and ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). The secondary canopy consists of mountain sandalwood (Santalum paniculatum), naio (Myoporum sandwicense), tree-form aalii (Dodonaea viscosa), and mamani (Sophora chrysophylla). The understory contains shrub, vine, grass, sedge, woodrush, and forb species.
Associated sites
| VX159A01X500 |
Well Drained Udic and Perudic Forest F159AY500 Deep and Very Deep Volcanic Ash Forest is tall stature rain forest similar to 159BY500 Udic Forest. F160XY504 Mauna Loa Ustic-Dry Udic Forest is a drier forest ecological site that lies in a narrow zone with drier climate and younger soils between the two rain forests. |
|---|---|
| VX159B01X500 |
Udic Forest F159BY500 Udic Forest is tall stature koa-ohia lehua/hapuu rain forest. |
| VX161B01X501 |
Kona Weather Ustic Forest F161BY501 Kona Weather Ustic Forest borders F160XY504 at lower elevations in the Kahuku area. F161BY501 has tall koa trees, which are absent from F160XY504, and fewer typical dry forest plant species; it is transitional to F159BY500 Udic Forest. |
Table 1. Dominant plant species
| Tree |
(1) Metrosideros polymorpha |
|---|---|
| Shrub |
(1) Dodonaea viscosa |
| Herbaceous |
Not specified |
Legacy ID
F160XY504HI
Physiographic features
This ecological site occurs on lava flows on sloping mountainsides of shield volcanoes. Lava flows are aa (loose, cobbly) or pahoehoe (smooth, relatively unbroken). Volcanic ash fields range from very shallow to deep on the underlying lava.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
| Landforms |
(1)
Shield volcano
(2) Mountain slope |
|---|---|
| Flooding frequency | None |
| Ponding frequency | None |
| Elevation | 2,500 – 7,000 ft |
| Slope | 3 – 35% |
| Water table depth | 60 in |
| Aspect | SE, S |
Climatic features
Average annual precipitation ranges from 45 to 80 inches (1120 to 2000 millimeters). In the Kahuku area (the part of this ecological site near the southern tip of the island), most of the precipitation falls from July through November, with November being the wettest month. In the Kapapala/HVNP area (the eastern portion of this ecological site), most of the precipitation falls from November through March, with November being the wettest month.
Average annual air temperature ranges from 55 to 69 degrees F(13 to 21 degrees C).
Air temperature in Hawaii is buffered by the surrounding ocean so that the range in temperature through the year is narrow. This creates “iso-“ soil temperature regimes in which mean summer and winter temperatures differ by less than 6 degrees C (11 degrees F).
Hawaii lies within the trade wind zone. Significant amounts of moisture are picked up from the ocean by trade winds up to an altitude of more than 6000 feet (very roughly 2000 meters). As the trade winds from the northeast are forced up the mountains of the island their moisture condenses, creating rain on the windward slopes; the leeward side of the island receives little of this moisture. Above approximately 6000 feet elevation there is a temperature inversion at the boundary between moist air and higher, drier air. Average annual temperatures decrease at a slower rate above the inversion than below it. Vegetation changes can occur within a short distance at the inversion layer, but this effect is complicated by the fact that this ecological site is in a gradient zone of east/west as well as mauka/makai (uphill/downhill) changes.
On the leeward side of the island, particularly in the Kona area, a “Kona weather pattern” exists. Heating of the land during the day pulls moist ocean air up the mountain slopes that produces clouds and rain in the afternoon. A cool breeze moves down the slopes at night. This weather pattern is strongest during the summer, creating a summer seasonal rainfall maximum.
On the windward side of the island, cool, moist air at higher elevations descends toward the ocean where it meets the trade winds; this process brings night-time rainfall to lower elevation areas.
In winter, low pressure systems often approach the island from the west, producing extensive rainstorms that primarily affect the leeward sides of the island.
Reference: Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998.
Table 3. Representative climatic features
| Frost-free period (average) | 0 days |
|---|---|
| Freeze-free period (average) | 0 days |
| Precipitation total (average) | 0 in |
Figure 1. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 2. Annual average temperature pattern
Influencing water features
Gulches and gullies sometimes carry water flows during and after rainstorms but do not affect the ecological site appreciably.
Soil features
Typical soils are very shallow to deep, rapidly weathered volcanic ash deposited on aa or pahoehoe. Most landscape surfaces in this ecological site are young (generally 750 to 5,000 years old). Soil moisture regimes are ustic (soil moisture control section is dry in some or all parts for 90 or more cumulative days in normal years) or the drier range of udic (soil moisture control section is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years).
The volcanic ash soils of the Island of Hawaii are derived mostly from basaltic ash that varies relatively little in chemical composition (Hazlett and Hyndman 1996; Vitousek 2004)). Most of these volcanic ash soils are classified as Andisols, which have these general management characteristics: ion exchange capacity that varies with pH, but mostly retaining anions such as nitrate; high phosphorus adsorption, which restricts phosphorus availability to plants; excellent physical properties (low bulk density, good friability, weak stickiness, stable soil aggregates) for cultivation, seedling emergence, and plant root growth; resistance to compaction and an ability to recover from compaction following repeated cycles of wetting and drying; and high capacity to hold water that is available to plants. These characteristics are due to the properties of the parent material, the clay-size noncrystalline materials formed by weathering, and the soil organic matter accumulated during soil formation (Shoji et al. 1993).
Andisols formed on pahoehoe lava can be very shallow to very deep. Pahoehoe is referred to as a “lithic contact,” which is a boundary between soil and underlying material that is coherent, continuous, difficult to dig with a spade, and contains few cracks that can be penetrated by roots (Soil Survey Staff 1999). Pahoehoe is typically very limiting to root penetration due to the spacing and size of cracks. However, this characteristic of pahoehoe is variable, and there are many instances of stands of large trees growing on very shallow and shallow ash soils over pahoehoe.
The lava rock fragments that constitute aa range in size from gravel (2 mm to 76 mm, or up to 3 inches) to stones (250 mm to 600 mm, or 10 to 25 inches), but are primarily gravel and cobbles (76 mm to 250 mm, or 3 to 10 inches). Below the layer of rock fragments is massive lava called “bluerock.” The interstices between rock fragments of Andisols formed in aa are filled with soil from the surface to the blue rock at the bottom of the soil. Some Andisols in aa have few or no rock fragments in the upper horizons, while others may have large amounts of rock fragments in all horizons and on the soil surface.
Soils that are moderately deep (20 to 40 inches, or 50 to 100 cm) or deeper over underlying lava appear to present few or no limits on native, pasture, or weedy vegetation, and it seems to make no difference whether the lava rock is pahoehoe or aa. However, these soils may present some tillage difficulties when formed in aa and containing significant amounts of coarse rock fragments near the surface. Very shallow and shallow ash soils over pahoehoe are sometimes ripped by heavy equipment to break up the underlying lava and create a deeper rooting zone.
Table 4. Representative soil features
| Parent material |
(1)
Basaltic volcanic ash
–
basalt
|
|---|---|
| Surface texture |
(1) Medial silt loam (2) Loam |
| Family particle size |
(1) Loamy |
| Drainage class | Well drained |
| Permeability class | Very slow to moderately rapid |
| Soil depth | 6 – 60 in |
| Surface fragment cover <=3" | 20% |
| Surface fragment cover >3" | 35% |
| Available water capacity (0-40in) |
1 – 10 in |
| Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in) |
Not specified |
| Electrical conductivity (0-40in) |
2 mmhos/cm |
| Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in) |
Not specified |
| Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in) |
4.5 – 7.8 |
| Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified) |
70% |
| Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified) |
90% |
Ecological dynamics
The information in this ecological site description (ESD), including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed using archaeological and historical data, professional experience, and scientific studies. The information is representative of a complex set of plant communities. Not all scenarios or plants are included. Key indicator plants, animals, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.
States and community phases within this ecological site were differentiated by inspection of data; ordination programs were not available. They were verified by professional consensus and consistent examples in the field.
This ecological site occurs on two separate locations of Kau district of the Island of Hawaii. The two locations are similar to each other in that they are intersected by very recent, relatively unvegetated lava flows. They are similar also in that they are in localized, relatively dry zones occurring at elevations that support wetter forests on both sides of each location. Rainfall in these dry zones exhibits a wet-to-dry-to wet gradient that occurs within just a few miles. For this reason, spatial transitions from this ecological site to neighboring wet forest ecological sites are rapid. The native vegetation exhibits a mix of species adapted to dry and moist habitats. The overstory is similar to neighboring moist forests in species and stature. The lower canopies contain many species typically found in drier environments. Tree ferns are rare but increase in abundance in the higher rainfall areas of this ecological site (>60” or 1500 millimeters annually).
Natural Disturbances
The natural (not human-caused) disturbances most important for discussion in this ecological site are lava flows, natural fires, volcanic ash falls, and wind throw.
A lava flow obviously destroys all the vegetation it covers. Regrowth of vegetation through primary succession and formation of new soil proceed at widely varying rates depending on flow age, local climate, lava type (aa or pahoehoe), and proximity of vegetation seed sources. Flows located in warm, moist climates are rapidly colonized by the nitrogen-fixing lichen Stereocaulon vulcani, followed soon by vascular plants including ohia lehua trees. In these environments, considerable vegetation can be established in periods measured in decades. Cooler and/or drier locations such as in much of this ecological site will revegetate more slowly. Where lava flows are narrow or where kipukas (“islands” of surfaces not covered by lava) occur, revegetation is hastened by the proximity of seed sources from intact vegetation stands nearby.
It has been estimated that about 40% of the surface of Mauna Loa has been covered by lava in the past 1,000 years (Wagner et al. 1999). This ecological site has been penetrated or surrounded by lava flows that occurred within the past several centuries; some of these flows occurred as recently as the early 20th century. Heat from nearby lava flows sears and kills vegetation and can ignite wildfires that may carry to some extent. These effects can be seen in vegetation growing near the edges of recent flows.
Vegetation can be killed by erupted layers of ash from volcanic vents, depending on the temperature of the ash and the depth of accumulation. However, vegetation sometimes survives ash flows (Vitousek 2004). Vegetation rapidly recovers because ash flow deposits possess physical and chemical properties favorable to plant growth, including high water holding capacity, high surface area, rapid weathering, and favorable mineral nutrient content. New soils develop very rapidly in ash deposits, and further soil development is facilitated in turn by the rapidly-developing vegetation (Shoji et al. 1993). Most lava surfaces and therefore developing soils in this ecological site range from 750 to 5000 years old. This range of soil ages coupled with the steep gradient in precipitation create variable conditions for soil development and vegetation recovery throughout this ecological site.
Wind throw of vegetation can occur during hurricanes or other high wind events. As some of the soils of this ecological site are very shallow or shallow, wind throw may be an important disturbance factor.
Human Disturbances
Human-related disturbances have been much more important than natural disturbances in this ecological site since the arrival of Polynesians and, later, Europeans. This is reflected in the State and Transition Model Diagram.
Humans arrived in the Hawaiian Islands 1200 to 1500 years ago. Their population gradually increased so that by 1600 AD at least 80% of all the lands in Hawaii below about 1500 feet (roughly 500 meters) in elevation had been extensively altered by humans (Kirch 1982); some pollen core data suggest that up to 100% of lowlands may have been altered (Athens 1997). By the time of European contact late in the 18th century, the Polynesians had developed high population densities and placed extensive areas under intensive agriculture (Cuddihy and Stone 1990).
Prehistoric native lowland forest disturbance can be attributed to clearing for agriculture by hand or by fire, introduction of new plants and animals, and wood harvesting. Higher elevation forests such as this ecological site would have been much less affected, but may have been affected by factors such as inadvertently introduced plant diseases and seed predation by the introduced Pacific Rat (Athens 1997).
After the arrival of Europeans, documentary evidence attests to accelerated and extensive deforestation, erosion, siltation, and changes in local weather patterns (Kirch 1983) due to more intensive land use, modern tools, and introduction of more plant, animal, and microbe species.
The Polynesians introduced dogs, Pacific rats, and small pigs to the islands. Cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and larger European pigs were introduced in the final decades of the 18th century. These animals ranged free on the islands, becoming very numerous and destructive by the early decades of the 19th century. By 1851, records reported severe overstocking of pastures, lack of fences, and large numbers of feral livestock (Henke 1929).
Through the 20th and into the 21st centuries, increases in human populations with attendant land development, as well as accelerated introduction of non-native mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, plants, and microorganisms, have brought about dramatic changes to wild ecosystems in Hawaii. This ecological site evolved without the presence of large mammals or the regular occurrence of fires. Probably all of the native reference community phase has been disturbed by human activity.
Foraging by feral cattle and pigs or forest clearing and abandonment facilitate invasion by weeds. However, introduced weeds appear able to successfully invade native stands regardless of human or ungulate disturbances. Among the major weeds are meadow ricegrass or weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides), and thimbleberry (Rubus rosifolius). Under improper management or abandonment, kikuyugrass grasslands are invaded unpalatable grasses such as broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) and Colombian bluestem (Schizachyrium condensatum).
State and transition model
Figure 3. STM F160XY504
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State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference State
The Reference State consists of one community phase. Much of the original forest has been cleared for livestock grazing. Description of this state is in part based on observations of small, remnant forest stands and scattered examples of the various plant species.
Community 1.1
Koa - mamani/`ulei - `a`ali`i/alpine hairgrass - Gaudichaud's sawsedge
Figure 4. Reference community phase. 05/11/05 D Clausnitzer MU726
The overstory consists of large statured examples of tree species representative of moist forests, while the secondary canopy trees are mostly species found in drier forests. While tree ferns are rare to nonexistent, there are many small fern species that typically are seen in moist forests. This community phase is a forest with an open or closed upper canopy up to 80 feet (25 meters) tall, a secondary canopy of 20 to 50 feet (6 to 15 meters) tall, and an understory of shrubs, vines, grass/grasslike species, and forbs. These forests typically have standing live timber of 1000 to 2500 cubic feet per acre, with a representative value of about 1700 cubic feet per acre. These estimates represent recent measurements of standing live trees that are probably lower than the amounts present in the original, undisturbed forests.
Forest overstory. The overstory consists of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) and koa (Acacia koa). Beneath this is a secondary canopy mostly consisting of mountain sandalwood (Santalum paniculatum), naio (Myoporum sandwicense), tree form aalii (Dodonaea viscosa), and mamani (Sophora chrysophylla).
Forest understory. The most common understory species are pilo or mirrorplant (Coprosma spp.), pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae), ulei or Hawaii hawthorn (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia), about 12 small fern/fern ally species, alpine hairgrass (Deschampsia nubigena), and Gaudichaud’s sawsedge (Gahnia gahniiformis).
Table 5. Soil surface cover
| Tree basal cover | 3-4% |
|---|---|
| Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 1-3% |
| Grass/grasslike basal cover | 0.5-1.0% |
| Forb basal cover | 0.0-0.5% |
| Non-vascular plants | 0.5-1.0% |
| Biological crusts | 0.5-1.0% |
| Litter | 80-85% |
| Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0.1-1.0% |
| Surface fragments >3" | 0.1-1.0% |
| Bedrock | 0% |
| Water | 0% |
| Bare ground | 0.5-1.0% |
Table 6. Woody ground cover
| Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) | – |
|---|---|
| Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) | – |
| Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) | – |
| Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) | 1-2% |
| Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) | 3-4% |
| Tree snags** (hard***) | – |
| Tree snags** (soft***) | – |
| Tree snag count** (hard***) | |
| Tree snag count** (hard***) |
* Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 7. Canopy structure (% cover)
| Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| <0.5 | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0-1% |
| >0.5 <= 1 | 0-1% | 1-1% | 1-5% | 1-1% |
| >1 <= 2 | 1-1% | 5-10% | 5-10% | 5-10% |
| >2 <= 4.5 | 1-1% | 5-10% | – | 1-2% |
| >4.5 <= 13 | 5-10% | 5-10% | – | – |
| >13 <= 40 | 25-35% | 3-5% | – | – |
| >40 <= 80 | 45-55% | – | – | – |
| >80 <= 120 | 1-2% | – | – | – |
| >120 | – | – | – | – |
State 2
Naturalized Grassland with >25% Tree Cover State
This state is comprised of three grassland community phases that have an open canopy of remnant native trees. Trees provide shade and protection from the elements to livestock. The shade also allows the cool season (C3) introduced grass meadow ricegrass or weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides) to become dominant over warm season (C4) forage grasses in some areas. Very little tree regeneration occurs, so the trees eventually die out over many years. Community phase 2.1 typically consists of kikuyugrass (Pennisetum clandestinum) with an admixture of legumes. Meadow ricegrass may dominate in shady areas. Continuous grazing that does not allow favored forage species time to recover from defoliation results in community phase 2.2, which is dominated by lower value forage species but contains enough remnant kikuyugrass to allow for a transition back to phase 2.1 with prescribed grazing. Removal of livestock leads to community phase 2.3, which consists of dense cover of native and/or introduced shrubs, remnant grasses, and seedlings and saplings of native and/or introduced trees.
Community 2.1
Koa - mamani/kikuyugrass - weeping grass/common vetch - white clover
Figure 5. Grassland with native trees, Kahuku. D Clausnitzer generic photo
The dominant grass species in this pasture type is kikuyugrass, although pangolagrass (Digitaria eriantha) also has been planted on some sites. Pastures may include introduced leguminous forbs as well as a small admixture of cool season grass species. Large native trees are common.
Forest overstory. The most common trees are ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), koa (Acacia koa), and mamani (Sophora chrysophylla).
Forest understory. Warm season (C4) grasses comprise most of the understory. Kikuyugrass, pangolagrass, and dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum) are the most important species, in decreasing order. Common velvetgrass (Holcus lanatus) and orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) are the most important cool season (C3) grasses; as a group, these species are a minor component of the grassland. Important legumes are common vetch (Vicia sativa), white clover (Trifolium repens), lowhop clover (Trifolium procumbens), kaimi clover (Desmodium canum) and Spanish clover (Desmodium uncinatum). Where tree shade favors it, meadow ricegrass can be abundant.
Figure 6. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Community 2.2
Koa - ohi`a lehua/kikuyugrass - weeping grass/narrowleaf plantain
Figure 7. Kikuyugrass with Andropogon virginicus. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This community phase has significant cover of grasses of relatively low forage value. Desirable forage legumes have been grazed out. Large ohia, koa, naio, and/or mamani trees are present.
Forest overstory. The most common trees are ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), koa (Acacia koa), and mamani (Sophora chrysophylla).
Forest understory. Grasses with relatively low forage value such as sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), and Colombian bluestem (Schizachyrium condensatum) are most abundant, and there is increased cover of weedy forbs. Barbwire grass (Cymbopogon refractus) is common only at the lowest, warmest parts of the ecological site. Meadow ricegrass is abundant where shade gives it a competitive advantage. Kikuyugrass is present but not dominant.
Table 8. Soil surface cover
| Tree basal cover | 1-2% |
|---|---|
| Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 0% |
| Grass/grasslike basal cover | 25-35% |
| Forb basal cover | 0.0-0.5% |
| Non-vascular plants | 0% |
| Biological crusts | 0% |
| Litter | 60-65% |
| Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0.1-1.0% |
| Surface fragments >3" | 0.1-1.0% |
| Bedrock | 0% |
| Water | 0% |
| Bare ground | 3-5% |
Table 9. Woody ground cover
| Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) | – |
|---|---|
| Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) | – |
| Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) | – |
| Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) | 0-0% |
| Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) | 0-1% |
| Tree snags** (hard***) | – |
| Tree snags** (soft***) | – |
| Tree snag count** (hard***) | |
| Tree snag count** (hard***) |
* Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 10. Canopy structure (% cover)
| Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| <0.5 | – | 0% | 1-2% | 3-5% |
| >0.5 <= 1 | – | 0% | 15-20% | 3-5% |
| >1 <= 2 | – | 1-1% | 55-65% | 2-3% |
| >2 <= 4.5 | – | 1-1% | 0-5% | 0-1% |
| >4.5 <= 13 | 0-1% | 1-1% | – | – |
| >13 <= 40 | 1-1% | – | – | – |
| >40 <= 80 | 25-40% | – | – | – |
| >80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
| >120 | – | – | – | – |
Community 2.3
Koa - ohi`a lehua/`a`ali`i - pukiawe/kikuyugrass - weeping grass/narrowleaf plantain - brackenfern
Figure 8. Grassland, native trees, and shrubs, Kahuku. D Clausnitzer generic photo.
Community phase 2.3 consists of dense cover of native and/or introduced shrubs, remnant grasses, and seedlings and saplings of native and/or introduced trees under a canopy of large native trees. Where weedy, introduced plants are low in abundance, native shrubs are dominant and native grasses grow in interspaces among the shrubs. Seedlings and saplings of native trees may be abundant.
Forest overstory. The most common trees are ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), koa (Acacia koa), and mamani (Sophora chrysophylla).
Forest understory. The native shrubs aalii (Dodonaea viscosa) and pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae) typically are abundant. Native alpine hairgrass (Deschampsia nubigena) may be present. Seedlings and saplings of native trees may be abundant, particularly koa. Christmasberry or Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius), a weedy, introduced species, may be abundant to elevations of about 3500 feet (1075 meters). Kikuyugrass and meadow ricegrass are present. A number of native fern species are often present.
Table 11. Soil surface cover
| Tree basal cover | 1-2% |
|---|---|
| Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 1-2% |
| Grass/grasslike basal cover | 10-20% |
| Forb basal cover | 0.1-0.5% |
| Non-vascular plants | 0% |
| Biological crusts | 0% |
| Litter | 60-70% |
| Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0.1-1.0% |
| Surface fragments >3" | 0.1-1.0% |
| Bedrock | 0% |
| Water | 0% |
| Bare ground | 5-10% |
Table 12. Woody ground cover
| Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) | – |
|---|---|
| Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) | – |
| Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) | – |
| Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) | 0% |
| Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) | 0% |
| Tree snags** (hard***) | – |
| Tree snags** (soft***) | – |
| Tree snag count** (hard***) | |
| Tree snag count** (hard***) |
* Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 13. Canopy structure (% cover)
| Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| <0.5 | 0% | 0-1% | 1-1% | 1-2% |
| >0.5 <= 1 | 0% | 1-2% | 10-20% | 5-10% |
| >1 <= 2 | 0% | 5-10% | 15-20% | 5-10% |
| >2 <= 4.5 | 0% | 25-35% | 5-10% | 0-1% |
| >4.5 <= 13 | 1-1% | 1-2% | – | – |
| >13 <= 40 | 1-2% | – | – | – |
| >40 <= 80 | 25-40% | – | – | – |
| >80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
| >120 | – | – | – | – |
Pathway 2.1B
Community 2.1 to 2.2
This community phase changes to phase 2.2 by continuous grazing that weakens preferred forage grasses and legumes in relation to poorer forage species and weedy forbs.
Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.3
This community phase will change to phase 2.3 after removal of ungulates and absence of fire, which allows native and/or introduced shrubs to gain dominance on the site. Native and/or introduced trees will begin to invade.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1
This community phase changes to phase 2.1 by prescribed grazing. A prescribed grazing plan provides for intensive but temporary grazing of pastures that ensures that cattle consume some low-value forage species along with preferred forages and allows preferred forages time to recover from defoliation. Kikuyugrass is very competitive and adapted to grazing and is able to recover with proper management. The grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing.
Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3
This community phase changes to phase 2.3 by removal of ungulates and absence of fire. These conditions allow shrubs and small trees to gain dominance.
Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1
This community phase changes to phase 2.1 by a combination of herbicidal weed control, prescribed grazing, brush management, and replanting of desirable forage species.
Pathway 2.3B
Community 2.3 to 2.2
This community phase is susceptible to wildfire, particularly if dominated by grasses such as broomsedge and beardgrass that maintain large amounts of dry, standing dead tissue. Low intensity wildfire would remove shrubs and small trees, changing the shrubland to phase 2.2.
State 3
Naturalized Grassland with <25% Tree Cover State
This state consists of three community phases that are grassland with either a sparse canopy of native trees or no trees at all. The lack of shade prevent the cool season (C3) introduced grass meadow ricegrass or weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides) from becoming abundant. Community phase 3.1 typically consists of kikuyugrass (Pennisetum clandestinum) with an admixture of legumes. Continuous grazing that does not allow favored forage species time to recover from defoliation results in community phase 3.2, which is dominated by lower value forage species but contains enough remnant kikuyugrass to allow for a transition back to phase 2.1 with prescribed grazing. Removal of livestock leads to community phase 3.3, which consists of dense cover of native and/or introduced shrubs, remnant grasses, and seedlings and saplings of native and/or introduced trees.
Community 3.1
Kikuyugrass - pangolagrass/common vetch - white clover
Figure 9. Open kikuyu grassland, Kapapala. D Clausnitzer generic photo
The dominant grass species in this pasture type is kikuyugrass, although pangolagrass (Digitaria eriantha) also has been planted on some sites. Pastures may include introduced leguminous forbs as well as a small admixture of cool season grass species.
Forest overstory. Where trees are present, the most common species are ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), koa (Acacia koa), and mamani (Sophora chrysophylla).
Forest understory. Warm season (C4) grasses comprise most of the understory. Kikuyugrass, pangolagrass, and dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum) are the most important species, in decreasing order. Common velvetgrass (Holcus lanatus) and orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) are the most important cool season (C3) grasses; as a group, these species are a minor component of the grassland. Important legumes are common vetch (Vicia sativa), white clover (Trifolium repens), lowhop clover (Trifolium procumbens), kaimi clover (Desmodium canum) and Spanish clover (Desmodium uncinatum).
Figure 10. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Community 3.2
Kikuyugrass - sweet vernalgrass/narrowleaf plantain
Figure 11. Kapapala near HVNP. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This community phase has significant cover of grasses of relatively low forage value. Desirable forage legumes have been grazed out.
Forest overstory. Where trees are present, the most common species are ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), koa (Acacia koa), and mamani (Sophora chrysophylla).
Forest understory. Grasses with relatively low forage value such as sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), and Colombian bluestem (Schizachyrium condensatum) are most abundant, and there is increased cover of weedy forbs. Barbwire grass (Cymbopogon refractus) is common only at the lowest, warmest parts of the ecological site. Kikuyugrass is present but not dominant.
Table 14. Soil surface cover
| Tree basal cover | 0% |
|---|---|
| Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 0% |
| Grass/grasslike basal cover | 30-40% |
| Forb basal cover | 0.5-1.0% |
| Non-vascular plants | 0% |
| Biological crusts | 0% |
| Litter | 40-60% |
| Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0.1-1.0% |
| Surface fragments >3" | 0.1-1.0% |
| Bedrock | 0% |
| Water | 0% |
| Bare ground | 3-5% |
Table 15. Canopy structure (% cover)
| Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| <0.5 | 0% | 0% | 1-2% | 0-1% |
| >0.5 <= 1 | – | 0-1% | 30-40% | 10-15% |
| >1 <= 2 | – | 1-1% | 35-45% | 10-15% |
| >2 <= 4.5 | – | 1-1% | 1-2% | 0-1% |
| >4.5 <= 13 | – | 1-1% | – | – |
| >13 <= 40 | 0% | – | – | – |
| >40 <= 80 | 0-25% | – | – | – |
| >80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
| >120 | – | – | – | – |
Community 3.3
Brazilian peppertree/`a`ali`i -pukiawe/kikuyugrass - sweet vernalgrass/plantain - brackenfern
Figure 12. Grassland with native shrubs, Keauhou Ranch. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This community phase consists of dense cover of native and/or introduced shrubs, remnant grasses, and seedlings and saplings of native and/or introduced trees. Where weedy, introduced plants are low in abundance, native shrubs are dominant and native grasses grow in interspaces among the shrubs. Seedlings and saplings of native trees may be abundant where seed sources are present.
Forest overstory. Where trees are present, the most common species are ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), koa (Acacia koa), and mamani (Sophora chrysophylla).
Forest understory. The native shrubs aalii (Dodonaea viscosa) and pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae) typically are abundant. Native alpine hairgrass (Deschampsia nubigena) may be present. Seedlings and saplings of native trees may be abundant, particularly koa. Christmasberry or Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius), a weedy, introduced species, may be abundant to elevations of about 3500 feet (1075 meters). Kikuyugrass is present. A number of native fern species are often present.
Table 16. Soil surface cover
| Tree basal cover | 0-1% |
|---|---|
| Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 2-3% |
| Grass/grasslike basal cover | 10-20% |
| Forb basal cover | 0.1-0.5% |
| Non-vascular plants | 0% |
| Biological crusts | 0% |
| Litter | 60-70% |
| Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0-1% |
| Surface fragments >3" | 0-1% |
| Bedrock | 0% |
| Water | 0% |
| Bare ground | 3-5% |
Table 17. Woody ground cover
| Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) | – |
|---|---|
| Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) | – |
| Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) | – |
| Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) | 0% |
| Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) | 0% |
| Tree snags** (hard***) | – |
| Tree snags** (soft***) | – |
| Tree snag count** (hard***) | 0 per acre |
| Tree snag count** (hard***) | 0 per acre |
* Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 18. Canopy structure (% cover)
| Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| <0.5 | – | 0% | 10-15% | 1-2% |
| >0.5 <= 1 | – | 0-1% | 20-25% | 3-5% |
| >1 <= 2 | – | 3-5% | 15-20% | 5-10% |
| >2 <= 4.5 | – | 35-45% | – | 0-1% |
| >4.5 <= 13 | – | 0-1% | – | – |
| >13 <= 40 | 0-25% | – | – | – |
| >40 <= 80 | 0-25% | – | – | – |
| >80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
| >120 | – | – | – | – |
Pathway 3.1B
Community 3.1 to 3.2
This community phase changes to phase 3.2 by continuous grazing that weakens preferred forage grasses and legumes in relation to poorer forage species and weedy forbs.
Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.3
This community phase will change to phase 3.3 after removal of ungulates and absence of fire, which allows native and/or introduced shrubs to gain dominance on the site. Native and/or introduced trees will begin to invade where seed sources are present.
Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1
This community phase changes to phase 3.1 by prescribed grazing. A prescribed grazing plan provides for intensive but temporary grazing of pastures that ensures that cattle consume some low-value forage species along with preferred forages and allows preferred forages time to recover from defoliation. Kikuyugrass is very competitive and adapted to grazing and is able to recover with proper management. The grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing.
Pathway 3.2B
Community 3.2 to 3.3
This community phase changes to phase 3.3 by removal of ungulates and absence of fire. These conditions allow shrubs and small trees to gain dominance.
Pathway 3.3A
Community 3.3 to 3.1
This community phase changes to phase 3.1 by a combination of herbicidal weed control, prescribed grazing, brush management, and replanting of desirable forage species.
Pathway 3.3B
Community 3.3 to 3.2
This community phase is susceptible to wildfire, particularly if dominated by grasses such as broomsedge and beardgrass that maintain large amounts of dry, standing dead tissue. Low intensity wildfire would remove shrubs and small trees, changing the shrubland to phase 3.2.
State 4
Restored Koa State
This state consists of one community phase. Koa seeds may remain viable in the soil for decades and can be induced to germinate by scarifying, or scraping, the soil surface with a bulldozer. If mature koa trees are present, suckers from their roots can quickly grow into spaces with sufficient sunlight. Thinning is necessary once the koa reach sufficient stature.
Community 4.1
Koa/kikuyugrass - weeping grass
Figure 13. Restored young koa stand, HVNP. D Clausnitzer generic photo
Figure 14. Two or three years growth after scarification. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This community phase consists of a dense stand of small to medium stature koa trees that have resprouted or been planted in grassland. There may or may not be large native trees present, depending on whether the grassland was in State 2 or State 3 previously. As the tree canopy closes, kikuyugrass will be partly or completely shaded out and replaced by meadow ricegrass, which persists unless killed by herbicide or deeper shade conditions and heavy tree litter. Other native plant species will begin to grow in the understory if a seed source is nearby.
Forest overstory. Large ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), koa (Acacia koa), and mamani (Sophora chrysophylla) may be present.
Forest understory. Small to medium stature koa trees are the most abundant plants in the understory. Kikuyugrass and, if sufficient shade is present, meadow ricegrass typically are the dominant grasses. Native shrubs including aalii (Dodonaea viscosa) and pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae) may be present.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
This state will transition to State 2 Naturalized Grassland with >25% Tree Cover by removing the native understory, either by heavy equipment or, more gradually, by continuous cattle grazing. Forage grasses are then established by sprigging or seeding.
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1
This state may be restored to a facsimile of State 1 Reference. Herbicidal weed control must be applied to forage species and the many opportunistic weed species that invade the site. Weed control would be a perpetual process to maintain the site. All ungulates must be excluded from the restoration site by a suitable fence. Domestic ungulates would be useful to manage vegetation outside the restoration site perimeter. Extensive planting of native species would follow. In some areas there may be a residual koa seed bank that could be encouraged to sprout by herbicide treatment of grasses followed by soil scarification by heavy machinery. Increased shade from trees growing on the site will cause a shift from warm season (C4) grasses to cool season (C3), shade-tolerant meadow ricegrass. Meadow ricegrass can be almost as dense and detrimental to establishment of native plants as kikuyugrass, so it must be controlled by herbicide.
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3
This state will transition to State 3 Native Grassland with <25% Tree Cover by intense wildfire. Alternatively, long term grazing will greatly reduce reproductive success of native trees, leading to gradual loss of the trees through natural mortality.
Restoration pathway R2B
State 2 to 4
Koa trees can rapidly form a dense stand on these sites from seed bank germination stimulated by mechanical soil scarification, root suckering from remnant koa, and/or replanting. Control of weeds, including forage grasses, facilitates this process. Grazing and browsing by ungulates must be excluded for at least five to seven years to allow koa saplings to grow large enough to withstand the presence of large animals.
Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 4
Koa trees can rapidly form a dense stand on these sites from seed bank germination stimulated by mechanical soil scarification, root suckering from remnant koa, and/or replanting. Control of weeds, including forage grasses, facilitates this process. Grazing and browsing by ungulates must be excluded for at least five to seven years to allow koa saplings to grow large enough to withstand the presence of large animals.
Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1
This state may be restored to a facsimile of State 1 Reference either by gradual reinvasion of the site from nearby native seed sources or by replanting. Weed control will be necessary to eliminate banana poka and other weeds that invade the site, as well as to reduce grass cover. Ungulates must be excluded from the site by a suitable fence.
Additional community tables
Table 19. Community 1.1 forest overstory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (in) | Basal area (square ft/acre) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Tree
|
|||||||
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 50–100 | 20–70 | 11–28 | – |
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 50–85 | 25–35 | 20–56 | – |
| mamani | SOCH | Sophora chrysophylla | Native | 13–25 | 10–20 | – | – |
| naio | MYSA | Myoporum sandwicense | Native | 13–30 | 5–10 | – | – |
| Florida hopbush | DOVI | Dodonaea viscosa | Native | 13–25 | 3–5 | – | – |
| mountain sandalwood | SAPA7 | Santalum paniculatum | Native | 13–40 | 0–5 | – | – |
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 13–40 | 1–2 | – | – |
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 20–40 | 1–2 | – | – |
| kolea lau nui | MYLE2 | Myrsine lessertiana | Native | 13–35 | 1–2 | – | – |
| Australasian catchbirdtree | PIBR3 | Pisonia brunoniana | Native | 13–30 | 0.5–1 | – | – |
| mountain sandalwood | SAPA7 | Santalum paniculatum | Native | 40–50 | 0–1 | – | – |
| cheesewood | PITTO | Pittosporum | Native | 13–35 | 0.5–1 | – | – |
| mirrorplant | COPRO | Coprosma | Native | 13–20 | 0.5–1 | – | – |
Table 20. Community 1.1 forest understory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
| alpine hairgrass | DENU6 | Deschampsia nubigena | Native | 1–2 | 0–3 | |
| pili uka | TRGL3 | Trisetum glomeratum | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| Oahu sedge | CAWA | Carex wahuensis | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| manyspike flatsedge | CYPO | Cyperus polystachyos | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| Hawai'i woodrush | LUHA2 | Luzula hawaiiensis | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.5 | |
|
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
| Kaumahana | KOCO | Korthalsella complanata | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.5 | |
| strawberry | FRAGA | Fragaria | Native | 0.1–0.3 | 0–0.5 | |
| peperomia | PEPER | Peperomia | Native | 0.3–1 | 0.1–0.5 | |
| 'ena'ena | PSSA8 | Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.5 | |
| 'uki'uki | DISA6 | Dianella sandwicensis | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.5 | |
| rough dubautia | DUSC | Dubautia scabra | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.5 | |
|
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
| palapalai | MIST4 | Microlepia strigosa | Native | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| alpine woodfern | DRWA | Dryopteris wallichiana | Native | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| Hawai'i air fern | PNSA | Pneumatopteris sandwicensis | Native | 2–3 | 0–1 | |
| dotted polypody | POPE5 | Polypodium pellucidum | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.5 | |
| Chinese creepingfern | ODCH | Odontosoria chinensis | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| Cretan brake | PTCR2 | Pteris cretica | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.5 | |
| western brackenfern | PTAQ | Pteridium aquilinum | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| royal tonguefern | ELCR2 | Elaphoglossum crassifolium | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.5 | |
| black spleenwort | ASAD | Asplenium adiantum-nigrum | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.5 | |
| whisk fern | PSNU | Psilotum nudum | Native | 0.3–0.5 | 0–0.1 | |
| maidenhair spleenwort | ASTR2 | Asplenium trichomanes | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.1 | |
| Trans-Pecos cliffbrake | PETE2 | Pellaea ternifolia | Native | 0.2–0.5 | 0–0.1 | |
|
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
| Hawai'i hawthorn | OSAN | Osteomeles anthyllidifolia | Native | 2–5 | 1–5 | |
| Florida hopbush | DOVI | Dodonaea viscosa | Native | 2–13 | 1–5 | |
| pukiawe | STTA | Styphelia tameiameiae | Native | 2–5 | 3–5 | |
| ohelo 'ai | VARE | Vaccinium reticulatum | Native | 2–3 | 1–2 | |
| Hawai'i false ohelo | WIPH2 | Wikstroemia phillyreifolia | Native | 2–6 | 0.5–1 | |
| 'aiakanene | COER3 | Coprosma ernodeoides | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| pukamole | LYMA3 | Lythrum maritimum | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
|
Tree
|
||||||
| mamani | SOCH | Sophora chrysophylla | Native | 2–13 | 0–5 | |
| naio | MYSA | Myoporum sandwicense | Native | 2–13 | 0–5 | |
| mirrorplant | COPRO | Coprosma | Native | 2–13 | 3–5 | |
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 2–13 | 1–2 | |
| kolea lau nui | MYLE2 | Myrsine lessertiana | Native | 2–13 | 0–1 | |
| Australasian catchbirdtree | PIBR3 | Pisonia brunoniana | Native | 2–13 | 0–1 | |
| cheesewood | PITTO | Pittosporum | Native | 2–13 | 0–0.5 | |
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 2–13 | – | |
| mountain sandalwood | SAPA7 | Santalum paniculatum | Native | 2–13 | – | |
|
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
| Maile | ALST11 | Alyxia stellata | Native | 1–8 | 0–1 | |
| Hawai'i blackberry | RUHA | Rubus hawaiensis | Native | 1–3 | 0.5–1 | |
| queen coralbead | COOR11 | Cocculus orbiculatus | Native | 1–3 | 0–1 | |
Table 21. Community 2.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Naturalized Warm Season Grasses | 2600–3200 | ||||
| kikuyugrass | PECL2 | Pennisetum clandestinum | 1200–1600 | – | ||
| digitgrass | DIER | Digitaria eriantha | 400–550 | – | ||
| dallisgrass | PADI3 | Paspalum dilatatum | 100–250 | – | ||
| smut grass | SPIN4 | Sporobolus indicus | 0–93 | – | ||
| marsh bristlegrass | SEPA10 | Setaria parviflora | 0–50 | – | ||
| Colombian bluestem | SCCO10 | Schizachyrium condensatum | 0 | – | ||
| broomsedge bluestem | ANVI2 | Andropogon virginicus | 0 | – | ||
| 2 | Naturalized (mostly) Cool Season Grasses/Grasslike | 75–200 | ||||
| sweet vernalgrass | ANOD | Anthoxanthum odoratum | 50–200 | – | ||
| orchardgrass | DAGL | Dactylis glomerata | 50–200 | – | ||
| common velvetgrass | HOLA | Holcus lanatus | 50–200 | – | ||
| shortleaf spikesedge | KYBR | Kyllinga brevifolia | 50–200 | – | ||
| perennial ryegrass | LOPE | Lolium perenne | 5–100 | – | ||
| Oahu flatsedge | CYHY2 | Cyperus hypochlorus | 5–20 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 3 | Naturalized Forbs | 200–600 | ||||
| garden vetch | VISA | Vicia sativa | 12–20 | – | ||
| white clover | TRRE3 | Trifolium repens | 4–20 | – | ||
| common mullein | VETH | Verbascum thapsus | 1–4 | – | ||
| scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | 1–4 | – | ||
| narrowleaf plantain | PLLA | Plantago lanceolata | 1–4 | – | ||
| Carolina geranium | GECA5 | Geranium carolinianum | 0 | – | ||
| tropical whiteweed | AGCO | Ageratum conyzoides | 0 | – | ||
| bull thistle | CIVU | Cirsium vulgare | 0 | – | ||
| asthmaweed | COBO | Conyza bonariensis | 0 | – | ||
|
Tree
|
||||||
| 4 | Native Trees | 240–630 | ||||
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | 140–330 | – | ||
| mamani | SOCH | Sophora chrysophylla | 50–200 | – | ||
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | 50–100 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 5 | Naturalized Shrubs, Vines, and Small Trees | 0–20 | ||||
| Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | 0–20 | – | ||
| West Indian raspberry | RURO | Rubus rosifolius | 0–5 | – | ||
| Peruvian groundcherry | PHPE4 | Physalis peruviana | 0–1 | – | ||
Table 22. Community 2.2 forest overstory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (in) | Basal area (square ft/acre) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Tree
|
|||||||
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 40–80 | 0–40 | – | – |
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 40–80 | 0–40 | – | – |
| mamani | SOCH | Sophora chrysophylla | Native | 13–20 | 0–1 | – | – |
| naio | MYSA | Myoporum sandwicense | Native | 13–25 | 0–1 | – | – |
| kolea lau nui | MYLE2 | Myrsine lessertiana | Native | 13–40 | 0–1 | – | – |
| mountain sandalwood | SAPA7 | Santalum paniculatum | Native | 13–20 | – | – | – |
Table 23. Community 2.2 forest understory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
| weeping grass | MIST | Microlaena stipoides | Introduced | 1–2 | 10–30 | |
| kikuyugrass | PECL2 | Pennisetum clandestinum | Introduced | 0.5–1.5 | 15–25 | |
| sweet vernalgrass | ANOD | Anthoxanthum odoratum | Introduced | 1–2 | 15–25 | |
| broomsedge bluestem | ANVI2 | Andropogon virginicus | Introduced | 2–3 | 1–10 | |
| Colombian bluestem | SCCO10 | Schizachyrium condensatum | Introduced | 2–3 | 1–10 | |
| smut grass | SPIN4 | Sporobolus indicus | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 3–5 | |
| common velvetgrass | HOLA | Holcus lanatus | Introduced | 1–2 | 3–5 | |
| common carpetgrass | AXFI | Axonopus fissifolius | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 1–2 | |
| marsh bristlegrass | SEPA10 | Setaria parviflora | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| dallisgrass | PADI3 | Paspalum dilatatum | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–1 | |
| barbwire grass | CYRE | Cymbopogon refractus | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| shortleaf spikesedge | KYBR | Kyllinga brevifolia | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| Oahu flatsedge | CYHY2 | Cyperus hypochlorus | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| manyspike flatsedge | CYPO | Cyperus polystachyos | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| nit grass | GAPH2 | Gastridium phleoides | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| densetuft hairsedge | BUCA2 | Bulbostylis capillaris | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–0.5 | |
| molassesgrass | MEMI2 | Melinis minutiflora | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
|
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
| narrowleaf plantain | PLLA | Plantago lanceolata | Introduced | 0.2–0.5 | 3–5 | |
| Madagascar ragwort | SEMA15 | Senecio madagascariensis | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 3–5 | |
| spreading snakeroot | AGRI2 | Ageratina riparia | Introduced | 1–2 | 3–5 | |
| hairy cat's ear | HYRA3 | Hypochaeris radicata | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| Carolina geranium | GECA5 | Geranium carolinianum | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.5–1 | |
| sensitive partridge pea | CHNI2 | Chamaecrista nictitans | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.1–1 | |
| bull thistle | CIVU | Cirsium vulgare | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–0.5 | |
| Japanese thimbleweed | ANHU | Anemone hupehensis | Introduced | 2–4 | 0–0.5 | |
| common mullein | VETH | Verbascum thapsus | Introduced | 1–4 | 0–0.5 | |
| Peruvian groundcherry | PHPE4 | Physalis peruviana | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–0.5 | |
| Jerusalem cherry | SOPS | Solanum pseudocapsicum | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–0.5 | |
|
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
| Old World forkedfern | DILI | Dicranopteris linearis | Native | 2–4 | 0–1 | |
| western brackenfern | PTAQ | Pteridium aquilinum | Native | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| royal tonguefern | ELCR2 | Elaphoglossum crassifolium | Native | 0.5–1 | 0–0.1 | |
| black spleenwort | ASAD | Asplenium adiantum-nigrum | Native | 0.5–1 | – | |
| maidenhair spleenwort | ASTR2 | Asplenium trichomanes | Native | 0.5–1 | – | |
| alpine woodfern | DRWA | Dryopteris wallichiana | Native | 1–2 | – | |
| Cretan brake | PTCR2 | Pteris cretica | Native | 0.3–0.5 | – | |
|
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
| Florida hopbush | DOVI | Dodonaea viscosa | Native | 2–4 | 0.5–1 | |
| pukiawe | STTA | Styphelia tameiameiae | Native | 2–4 | 0.5–1 | |
| cure for all | PLCA10 | Pluchea carolinensis | Introduced | 2–6 | 0–1 | |
|
Tree
|
||||||
| Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 4–13 | 0–1 | |
| guava | PSGU | Psidium guajava | Introduced | 2–5 | 0–1 | |
| mamani | SOCH | Sophora chrysophylla | Native | 8–13 | 0–0.5 | |
| kolea lau nui | MYLE2 | Myrsine lessertiana | Native | 6–13 | 0–0.5 | |
| strawberry guava | PSCA | Psidium cattleianum | Introduced | 0.5–2 | – | |
| silkoak | GRRO | Grevillea robusta | Introduced | 1–3 | – | |
| firetree | MOFA | Morella faya | Introduced | 2–5 | – | |
|
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
| Cape-ivy | DEOD | Delairea odorata | Introduced | 1–20 | 0–1 | |
| sawtooth blackberry | RUAR2 | Rubus argutus | Introduced | 2–4 | 0–1 | |
Table 24. Community 2.3 forest overstory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (in) | Basal area (square ft/acre) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Tree
|
|||||||
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 40–80 | 0–40 | – | – |
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 40–80 | 0–40 | – | – |
| mamani | SOCH | Sophora chrysophylla | Native | 13–20 | 0–1 | – | – |
| kolea lau nui | MYLE2 | Myrsine lessertiana | Native | 13–25 | 0–1 | – | – |
| naio | MYSA | Myoporum sandwicense | Native | 13–25 | 0–0.5 | – | – |
| mountain sandalwood | SAPA7 | Santalum paniculatum | Native | 13–25 | – | – | – |
Table 25. Community 2.3 forest understory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
| weeping grass | MIST | Microlaena stipoides | Introduced | 1–2 | 10–25 | |
| kikuyugrass | PECL2 | Pennisetum clandestinum | Introduced | 0.5–2 | 15–20 | |
| common velvetgrass | HOLA | Holcus lanatus | Introduced | 1–2 | 3–5 | |
| broomsedge bluestem | ANVI2 | Andropogon virginicus | Introduced | 2–3 | 3–5 | |
| Colombian bluestem | SCCO10 | Schizachyrium condensatum | Introduced | 2–3 | 3–5 | |
| smut grass | SPIN4 | Sporobolus indicus | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| dallisgrass | PADI3 | Paspalum dilatatum | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–1 | |
| nit grass | GAPH2 | Gastridium phleoides | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| barbwire grass | CYRE | Cymbopogon refractus | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| shortleaf spikesedge | KYBR | Kyllinga brevifolia | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| Oahu flatsedge | CYHY2 | Cyperus hypochlorus | Native | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| manyspike flatsedge | CYPO | Cyperus polystachyos | Native | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| densetuft hairsedge | BUCA2 | Bulbostylis capillaris | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| common carpetgrass | AXFI | Axonopus fissifolius | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| marsh bristlegrass | SEPA10 | Setaria parviflora | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| alpine hairgrass | DENU6 | Deschampsia nubigena | Native | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| sweet vernalgrass | ANOD | Anthoxanthum odoratum | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
|
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
| hairy cat's ear | HYRA3 | Hypochaeris radicata | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| Carolina geranium | GECA5 | Geranium carolinianum | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| narrowleaf plantain | PLLA | Plantago lanceolata | Introduced | 0.2–0.5 | 0–1 | |
| Peruvian groundcherry | PHPE4 | Physalis peruviana | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–1 | |
| Jerusalem cherry | SOPS | Solanum pseudocapsicum | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–1 | |
| sensitive partridge pea | CHNI2 | Chamaecrista nictitans | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| spreading snakeroot | AGRI2 | Ageratina riparia | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| Japanese thimbleweed | ANHU | Anemone hupehensis | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–0.5 | |
| bull thistle | CIVU | Cirsium vulgare | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–0.5 | |
| common mullein | VETH | Verbascum thapsus | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–0.5 | |
|
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
| western brackenfern | PTAQ | Pteridium aquilinum | Native | 2–3 | 3–5 | |
| alpine woodfern | DRWA | Dryopteris wallichiana | Native | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| Madagascar ragwort | SEMA15 | Senecio madagascariensis | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| Old World forkedfern | DILI | Dicranopteris linearis | Native | 2–4 | 0–1 | |
| scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| royal tonguefern | ELCR2 | Elaphoglossum crassifolium | Native | 0.5–1 | – | |
| Cretan brake | PTCR2 | Pteris cretica | Native | 0.5–1 | – | |
| black spleenwort | ASAD | Asplenium adiantum-nigrum | Native | 1–2 | – | |
| maidenhair spleenwort | ASTR2 | Asplenium trichomanes | Native | 0.5–1 | – | |
|
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
| Florida hopbush | DOVI | Dodonaea viscosa | Native | 2–6 | 10–20 | |
| pukiawe | STTA | Styphelia tameiameiae | Native | 2–4 | 15–20 | |
| cure for all | PLCA10 | Pluchea carolinensis | Introduced | 2–4 | 0.5–1 | |
|
Tree
|
||||||
| Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 2–8 | 1–5 | |
| firetree | MOFA | Morella faya | Introduced | 2–4 | 0–1 | |
| guava | PSGU | Psidium guajava | Introduced | 2–4 | 0.5–1 | |
| kolea lau nui | MYLE2 | Myrsine lessertiana | Native | 2–6 | 0–0.5 | |
| mamani | SOCH | Sophora chrysophylla | Native | 2–8 | 0–0.5 | |
| naio | MYSA | Myoporum sandwicense | Native | 1–2 | – | |
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 2–4 | – | |
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 1–2 | – | |
| silkoak | GRRO | Grevillea robusta | Introduced | 2–4 | – | |
| strawberry guava | PSCA | Psidium cattleianum | Introduced | 1–4 | – | |
|
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
| sawtooth blackberry | RUAR2 | Rubus argutus | Introduced | 2–4 | 0.5–2 | |
| Cape-ivy | DEOD | Delairea odorata | Introduced | 2–20 | 0–1 | |
Table 26. Community 3.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Naturalized Warm Season Grasses | 2800–3400 | ||||
| kikuyugrass | PECL2 | Pennisetum clandestinum | 1860–2480 | – | ||
| digitgrass | DIER | Digitaria eriantha | 465–620 | – | ||
| dallisgrass | PADI3 | Paspalum dilatatum | 155–310 | – | ||
| marsh bristlegrass | SEPA10 | Setaria parviflora | 155–310 | – | ||
| smut grass | SPIN4 | Sporobolus indicus | 0–93 | – | ||
| Colombian bluestem | SCCO10 | Schizachyrium condensatum | 0 | – | ||
| broomsedge bluestem | ANVI2 | Andropogon virginicus | 0 | – | ||
| 2 | Naturalized (mostly) Grasses/Grasslikes | 160–320 | ||||
| sweet vernalgrass | ANOD | Anthoxanthum odoratum | 31–155 | – | ||
| orchardgrass | DAGL | Dactylis glomerata | 31–155 | – | ||
| common velvetgrass | HOLA | Holcus lanatus | 31–155 | – | ||
| shortleaf spikesedge | KYBR | Kyllinga brevifolia | 31–93 | – | ||
| perennial ryegrass | LOPE | Lolium perenne | 0–93 | – | ||
| Oahu flatsedge | CYHY2 | Cyperus hypochlorus | 0–6 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 3 | Naturalized Forbs | 200–600 | ||||
| garden vetch | VISA | Vicia sativa | 12–20 | – | ||
| white clover | TRRE3 | Trifolium repens | 4–20 | – | ||
| common mullein | VETH | Verbascum thapsus | 1–4 | – | ||
| scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | 1–4 | – | ||
| narrowleaf plantain | PLLA | Plantago lanceolata | 1–4 | – | ||
| cayenne porterweed | STCA8 | Stachytarpheta cayennensis | 0 | – | ||
| light-blue snakeweed | STJA | Stachytarpheta jamaicensis | 0 | – | ||
| tropical whiteweed | AGCO | Ageratum conyzoides | 0 | – | ||
| bull thistle | CIVU | Cirsium vulgare | 0 | – | ||
| asthmaweed | COBO | Conyza bonariensis | 0 | – | ||
| Canadian horseweed | COCA5 | Conyza canadensis | 0 | – | ||
| Carolina geranium | GECA5 | Geranium carolinianum | 0 | – | ||
|
Tree
|
||||||
| 4 | Native Trees and Shrubs | 20–150 | ||||
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | 1–4 | – | ||
| mamani | SOCH | Sophora chrysophylla | 1–3 | – | ||
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | 1–3 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 5 | Naturalized Shrubs and Trees | 10–40 | ||||
| balloonplant | ASPH2 | Asclepias physocarpa | 0 | – | ||
| Peruvian groundcherry | PHPE4 | Physalis peruviana | 0 | – | ||
| West Indian raspberry | RURO | Rubus rosifolius | 0 | – | ||
| Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | 0 | – | ||
| Jerusalem cherry | SOPS | Solanum pseudocapsicum | 0 | – | ||
Table 27. Community 3.2 forest overstory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (in) | Basal area (square ft/acre) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Tree
|
|||||||
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 40–80 | 0–25 | – | – |
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 40–80 | 0–25 | – | – |
Table 28. Community 3.2 forest understory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
| kikuyugrass | PECL2 | Pennisetum clandestinum | Introduced | 0.5–1.5 | 30–40 | |
| sweet vernalgrass | ANOD | Anthoxanthum odoratum | Introduced | 1–2 | 15–25 | |
| Colombian bluestem | SCCO10 | Schizachyrium condensatum | Introduced | 2–3 | 3–5 | |
| smut grass | SPIN4 | Sporobolus indicus | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 3–5 | |
| dallisgrass | PADI3 | Paspalum dilatatum | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| common carpetgrass | AXFI | Axonopus fissifolius | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| marsh bristlegrass | SEPA10 | Setaria parviflora | Native | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| nit grass | GAPH2 | Gastridium phleoides | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| barbwire grass | CYRE | Cymbopogon refractus | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| shortleaf spikesedge | KYBR | Kyllinga brevifolia | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| Oahu flatsedge | CYHY2 | Cyperus hypochlorus | Native | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| manyspike flatsedge | CYPO | Cyperus polystachyos | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| densetuft hairsedge | BUCA2 | Bulbostylis capillaris | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| molassesgrass | MEMI2 | Melinis minutiflora | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
|
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
| spreading snakeroot | AGRI2 | Ageratina riparia | Introduced | 1–2 | 3–5 | |
| hairy cat's ear | HYRA3 | Hypochaeris radicata | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 3–5 | |
| Carolina geranium | GECA5 | Geranium carolinianum | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 3–5 | |
| narrowleaf plantain | PLLA | Plantago lanceolata | Introduced | 0.2–0.5 | 3–5 | |
| Madagascar ragwort | SEMA15 | Senecio madagascariensis | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 3–5 | |
| Japanese thimbleweed | ANHU | Anemone hupehensis | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–1 | |
| sensitive partridge pea | CHNI2 | Chamaecrista nictitans | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0–1 | |
| bull thistle | CIVU | Cirsium vulgare | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–1 | |
| common mullein | VETH | Verbascum thapsus | Native | 1–3 | 0–0.5 | |
| Peruvian groundcherry | PHPE4 | Physalis peruviana | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–0.5 | |
| Jerusalem cherry | SOPS | Solanum pseudocapsicum | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–0.5 | |
|
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
| scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| western brackenfern | PTAQ | Pteridium aquilinum | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
|
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
| pukiawe | STTA | Styphelia tameiameiae | Native | 2–5 | 0–1 | |
| cure for all | PLCA10 | Pluchea carolinensis | Introduced | 2–6 | 0–1 | |
| Florida hopbush | DOVI | Dodonaea viscosa | Native | 2–5 | 0–1 | |
|
Tree
|
||||||
| Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 1–2 | – | |
| strawberry guava | PSCA | Psidium cattleianum | Introduced | 1–2 | – | |
| guava | PSGU | Psidium guajava | Introduced | 1–2 | – | |
| silkoak | GRRO | Grevillea robusta | Introduced | 1–2 | – | |
| firetree | MOFA | Morella faya | Introduced | 1–2 | – | |
|
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
| sawtooth blackberry | RUAR2 | Rubus argutus | Introduced | 2–4 | 0–1 | |
Table 29. Community 3.3 forest overstory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | Diameter (in) | Basal area (square ft/acre) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Tree
|
|||||||
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | Native | 40–80 | 0–25 | – | – |
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | Native | 40–80 | 0–25 | – | – |
Table 30. Community 3.3 forest understory composition
| Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
| kikuyugrass | PECL2 | Pennisetum clandestinum | Introduced | 0.5–1.5 | 15–20 | |
| sweet vernalgrass | ANOD | Anthoxanthum odoratum | Introduced | 1–2 | 3–5 | |
| broomsedge bluestem | ANVI2 | Andropogon virginicus | Introduced | 2–3 | 1–5 | |
| Colombian bluestem | SCCO10 | Schizachyrium condensatum | Introduced | 2–3 | 1–5 | |
| common velvetgrass | HOLA | Holcus lanatus | Introduced | 1–2 | 3–5 | |
| common carpetgrass | AXFI | Axonopus fissifolius | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.5–1 | |
| smut grass | SPIN4 | Sporobolus indicus | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.5–1 | |
| manyspike flatsedge | CYPO | Cyperus polystachyos | Native | 1–2 | 0.5–1 | |
| dallisgrass | PADI3 | Paspalum dilatatum | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| marsh bristlegrass | SEPA10 | Setaria parviflora | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| Oahu flatsedge | CYHY2 | Cyperus hypochlorus | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| shortleaf spikesedge | KYBR | Kyllinga brevifolia | Introduced | 0.2–0.5 | 0–0.5 | |
| nit grass | GAPH2 | Gastridium phleoides | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
| barbwire grass | CYRE | Cymbopogon refractus | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
| densetuft hairsedge | BUCA2 | Bulbostylis capillaris | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.1 | |
|
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
| spreading snakeroot | AGRI2 | Ageratina riparia | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–1 | |
| sensitive partridge pea | CHNI2 | Chamaecrista nictitans | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.5–1 | |
| Japanese thimbleweed | ANHU | Anemone hupehensis | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–0.5 | |
| hairy cat's ear | HYRA3 | Hypochaeris radicata | Introduced | 0.2–0.5 | 0–0.5 | |
| Carolina geranium | GECA5 | Geranium carolinianum | Introduced | 0.2–0.5 | 0–0.5 | |
| narrowleaf plantain | PLLA | Plantago lanceolata | Introduced | 0.2–0.5 | 0.1–0.5 | |
| Madagascar ragwort | SEMA15 | Senecio madagascariensis | Introduced | 0.5–1 | 0.1–0.5 | |
| common mullein | VETH | Verbascum thapsus | Introduced | 2–4 | 0–0.2 | |
| Jerusalem cherry | SOPS | Solanum pseudocapsicum | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–0.2 | |
| bull thistle | CIVU | Cirsium vulgare | Introduced | 2–3 | 0–0.1 | |
| Peruvian groundcherry | PHPE4 | Physalis peruviana | Introduced | 1–3 | 0–0.1 | |
|
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
| western brackenfern | PTAQ | Pteridium aquilinum | Native | 1–2 | 1–5 | |
| scaly swordfern | NEHI | Nephrolepis hirsutula | Introduced | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| alpine woodfern | DRWA | Dryopteris wallichiana | Native | 1–2 | 0–0.5 | |
| Cretan brake | PTCR2 | Pteris cretica | Native | 0.2–0.5 | – | |
|
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
| pukiawe | STTA | Styphelia tameiameiae | Introduced | 1–4 | 20–30 | |
| Florida hopbush | DOVI | Dodonaea viscosa | Native | 3–6 | 15–20 | |
| cure for all | PLCA10 | Pluchea carolinensis | Introduced | 1–5 | 0.5–1 | |
|
Tree
|
||||||
| Brazilian peppertree | SCTE | Schinus terebinthifolius | Introduced | 2–13 | 1–5 | |
| guava | PSGU | Psidium guajava | Introduced | 2–4 | 0–1 | |
| firetree | MOFA | Morella faya | Introduced | 2–4 | 0–1 | |
| silkoak | GRRO | Grevillea robusta | Introduced | 2–3 | – | |
| strawberry guava | PSCA | Psidium cattleianum | Introduced | 1–3 | – | |
|
Vine/Liana
|
||||||
| sawtooth blackberry | RUAR2 | Rubus argutus | Introduced | 2–4 | 0.5–1 | |
Interpretations
Animal community
Native Wildlife
Community phases that provide open grassland or savanna-like settings provide habitat for the native Hawaiian hawk or io (Buteo solitarius) and Hawaiian owl or pueo (Asio flammeus spp. sandwichensis).
A large number of native bird species have gone extinct both before and after European contact.
Introduced Wildlife
This ecological site provides habitat to a variety of introduced birds. Species such as wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), Erckel’s francolin (Pternistis erckelii), chucker partridge (Alectoris chukar), and black francolin (Francolinus francolinus) are considered to be game birds.
Feral pigs and sheep are common. They provide hunting opportunities but are very destructive to native vegetation. Public sport hunting typically does not have a major impact on their populations; exclusion by fences followed by intensive control measures are necessary to eliminate feral ungulates.
Introduced wildlife species are able to utilize all community phases within the ecological site.
Grazing Interpretations
The following table lists suggested initial stocking rates for cattle under the Forage Value Rating system for only community phases 2.1 and 3.1. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Sometimes the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community described in this ecological site description. Because of this, a field visit is recommended to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. Under more intensive grazing management, improved harvest efficiencies may result in an increased stocking rate.
Forage Value Rating (note 1)
Very High (note 2) 0.40-0.59 acre/AUM (note 3) 2.56-1.70 AUM/acre
High 0.59-0.78 acre/AUM 1.70-1.28 AUM/acre
Moderate 0.78-1.56 acre/AUM 1.28-0.64 AUM/acre
Low 1.56-+ acre/AUM 0.64-+ AUM/acre
(note 1) The Forage Value Rating System is not an ecological evaluation of community phases 2.1 and 3.1. It is a utilitarian rating of the existing forage value for that specific plant community.
(note 2) Conservationists must use considerable judgment, because some pastures in the Very High forage class could be producing less than normal volumes of forage, and adjustments would need to be made in the initial stocking rate.
(note 3) Stocking rates vary in accordance with such factors as kind and class of livestock or wildlife, season of use, and fluctuations in climate. Actual use records and on-site inventories for individual sites, together with a determination of the degree to which the sites have been grazed, offer the most reliable basis for developing initial stocking rates.
These plant communities are suitable for grazing by all kinds and classes of livestock, at any season, particularly cattle. However, this site is best utilized for grazing during the major plant growth period described in the “Climate” section. This site is suited for grazing by both cow-calf operations and stocker operations. However, sheep can be grazed on this site as well. This site is poorly suited to continuous year-long use if the condition of the plant community is to be maintained. Herbaceous forage can be deficient in protein during the drier months.
Hydrological functions
Runoff is high to very high on shallow and very shallow volcanic ash soils formed over pahoehoe lava, particularly on steeper slopes. Soils in this ecological site that are in that category are Menehune, Maunaiu, Kaholimo, Nanaia, Iwalani, and Keaa.
Recreational uses
Hunting is the most common recreational use.
Wood products
There is good potential for production of koa in this ecological site.
Other products
None.
Other information
Definitions
These definitions have been greatly simplified for brevity and do not cover every aspect of each topic.
Aa lava: A type of basaltic lava having a rough, jagged, clinkery surface and a vesicular interior.
Alluvial: Materials or processes associated with transportation and/or deposition by running water.
Aquic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is free of dissolved oxygen because it is saturated by water. This regime typically exists in bogs or swamps.
Aridic soil moisture regime: A regime in which defined parts of the soil are, in normal years, dry for more than half of the growing season and moist for less than 90 consecutive days during the growing season. In Hawaii it is associated with hot, dry areas with plants such as kiawe, wiliwili, and buffelgrass. The terms aridic and torric are basically the same.
Ash field: a land area covered by a thick or distinctive deposit of volcanic ash that can be traced to a specific source and has well defined boundaries. The term “ash flow” is erroneously used in the Physiographic section of this ESD due to a flaw in the national database.
Ashy: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of less than 30 percent; a soil that holds relatively less water than “medial” and “hydrous” soils.
Available water capacity: The amount of soil water available to plants to the depth of the first root-restricting layer.
Basal area or basal cover: The cross sectional area of the stem or stems of a plant or of all plants in a stand.
Blue rock: The dense, hard, massive lava that forms the inner core of an aa lava flow.
Bulk density: the weight of dry soil per unit of volume. Lower bulk density indicates a greater amount of pore space that can hold water and air in a soil.
CaCO3 equivalent: The amount of free lime in a soil. Free lime exists as solid material and typically occurs in regions with a dry climate.
Canopy cover: The percentage of ground covered by the vertical projection downward of the outermost perimeter of the spread of plant foliage. Small openings within the canopy are included.
Community pathway: A description of the causes of shifts between community phases. A community pathway is reversible and is attributable to succession, natural disturbances, short-term climatic variation, and facilitating practices, such as grazing management.
Community phase: A unique assemblage of plants and associated dynamic soil properties within a state.
Dominant species: Plant species or species groups that exert considerable influence upon a community due to size, abundance, or cover.
Drainage class: The frequency and duration of a water table in a soil. There are seven drainage classes, ranging from “excessively drained” (soils with very rare or very deep water tables) to “well drained” (soils that provide ample water for plant growth but are not so wet as to inhibit root growth) to “very poorly drained” (soils with a water table at or near the surface during much of the growing season that inhibits growth of most plants).
Electrical conductivity (EC): A measure of the salinity of a soil. The standard unit is deciSiemens per meter (dS/m), which is numerically equivalent to millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). An EC greater than about 4 dS/m indicates a salinity level that is unfavorable to growth of most plants.
Friability: A soil consistency term pertaining to the ease of crumbling of soils.
Hydrous: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 100 percent or more; a soil that holds more water than “medial” or “ashy” soils.
Ion exchange capacity: The ability of soil materials such as clay or organic matter to retain ions (which may be plant nutrients) and to release those ions for uptake by roots.
Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) or higher and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Isomesic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 47 degrees F (8 degrees C) or higher but lower than 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Isothermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) or higher but lower than 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Kipuka: An area of land surrounded by younger (more recent) lava. Soils and plant communities within a kipuka are older than, and often quite different from, those on the surrounding surfaces.
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): A geographic area defined by NRCS that is characterized by a particular pattern of soils, climate, water resources, and land uses. The island of Hawaii contains nine MLRAs, some of which also occur on other islands in the state.
Makai: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the sea.”
Mauka: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the mountain” or “inland.”
Medial: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent; a soil that holds an amount of water intermediate to “hydrous” or “ashy” soils.
Naturalized plant community: A community dominated by adapted, introduced species. It is a relatively stable community resulting from secondary succession after disturbance. Most grasslands in Hawaii are in this category.
Pahoehoe lava: A type of basaltic lava with a smooth, billowy, or rope-like surface and vesicular interior.
Parent material: Unconsolidated and chemically weathered material from which a soil is developed.
Perudic soil moisture regime: A very wet regime found where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration in all months of normal years. On the island of Hawaii, this regime is found on top of Kohala and on parts of the windward side of Mauna Kea.
pH: The numerical expression of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a soil sample. A pH of 7 is neutral; a pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is basic.
Phosphorus adsorption: The ability of soil materials to tightly retain phosphorous ions, which are a plant nutrient. Some volcanic ash soils retain phosphorus so strongly that it is partly unavailable to plants.
Reference community phase: The phase exhibiting the characteristics of the reference state and containing the full complement of plant species that historically occupied the site. It is the community phase used to classify an ecological site.
Reference state: A state that describes the ecological potential and natural or historical range of variability of an ecological site.
Restoration pathway: A term describing the environmental conditions and practices that are required to recover a state that has undergone a transition.
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR): A measure of the amount of dissolved sodium relative to calcium and magnesium in the soil water. SAR values higher than 13 create soil conditions unfavorable to most plants.
Soil moisture regime: A term referring to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa (the crop wilting point) in the soil or in specific horizons during periods of the year.
Soil temperature regime: A defined class based on mean annual soil temperature and on differences between summer and winter temperatures at a specified depth.
Soil reaction: Numerical expression in pH units of the relative acidity or alkalinity or a soil.
State: One or more community phases and their soil properties that interact with the abiotic and biotic environment to produce persistent functional and structural attributes associated with a characteristic range of variability.
State-and-transition model: A method used to display information about relationships between vegetation, soil, animals, hydrology, disturbances, and management actions on an ecological site.
Torric soil moisture regime: See Aridic soil moisture regime.
Transition: A term describing the biotic or abiotic variables or events that contribute to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states.
Udic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years, and so provides ample moisture for plants. In Hawaii it is associated with forests in which hapuu (tree ferns) are usually moderately to highly abundant.
Ustic soil moisture regime: A regime in which moisture is limited but present at a time when conditions are suitable for plant growth. In Hawaii it usually is associated with dry forests and subalpine shrublands.
Supporting information
Type locality
| Location 1: Hawaii County, HI | |
|---|---|
| Latitude | 19° 29′ 13″ |
| Longitude | 155° 22′ 6″ |
| General legal description | From gate at Volcano Winery, drive N 1.25 mi, turn left, go 2.5 mi, turn left, go 1.0 mi to HVNP fence, turn right, follow fenceline 2.5 mi to NW. Park at top of steep "driveway", walk SW 0.1 mi to HVNP fence; climb fence and go into forest 50 yards. |
Other references
Armstrong RW. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawai`i Press, Honolulu.
Athens JS. Ch. 12 Hawaiian Native Lowland Vegetation in Prehistory in Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands – Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change. Kirch PV and TL Hunt, eds. 1997. Yale U. Press, New Haven.
Burney DA, HF James, LP Burney, SL Olson, W Kikuchi, WL Wagner, M Burney, D McCloskey, D Kikuchi, FV Grady, R Gage II, and R Nishek. 2001. Fossil evidence for a diverse biota from Kauai and its transformation since human arrival. Ecological Monographs 71:615-641.
Craighill ES and EG Handy. 1991. Native Planters in Old Hawaii – Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI
Cuddihy LW and CP Stone. 1990. Alteration of Native Hawaiian Vegetation: Effects of Humans, Their Activities and Introductions. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Study Unit.
Hazlett RW and DW Hyndman. 1996. Roadside Geology of Hawaii. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula MT.
Henke LA. 1929. A Survey of Livestock in Hawaii. Research Publication No. 5. University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Jacobi JD. 1989. Vegetation Maps of the Upland Plant Communities on the Islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai. Technical Report 68. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa and National Park Service.
Kirch PV. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians in the Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Science 36(1):1-14.
Kirch PV. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Kirch PV. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Little EL Jr. and RG Skolmen. 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and Introduced). US Department of Agriculture-US Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 679. (out of print). Available at www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/misc/ah679.pdf
Loh RK. 2004. Complete vegetation map of Hawaii Volcanoes National park below 8,000 ft elevation. US National Park Service.
Mueller-Dombois D and FR Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
Palmer DD. 2003. Hawaii’s Ferns and Fern Allies. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Pratt HD. 1998. A Pocket Guide to Hawaii’s Trees and Shrubs. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.
Ripperton JC and EY Hosaka. 1942. Vegetation zones of Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 89:1-60.
Rock JF. The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands. 1st edition 1913, reprinted 1974, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, VT and Tokyo, Japan.
Shoji SD, M Nanzyo, and R Dahlgren. 1993. Volcanic Ash Soils: Genesis, Properties and Utilization. Elsevier, New York.
Sohmer SH and R Gustafson. 2000. Plants and Flowers of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Steadman DW. 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science 267:1123-1131.
USDA-NRCS-PIA T&E Species GIS files. Not publicly available.
USDI-USGS. 2006. A GAP Analysis of Hawaii. Final Report and Data.
Vitousek P. 2004. Nutrient Cycling and Limitation: Hawaii as a Model Ecosystem. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford.
Wagner WL, DR Herbst, and SH Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised Edition. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.
Whistler WA. 1995. Wayside Plants of the Islands: a Guide to the Lowland Flora of the Pacific Islands. Isle Botanica, Honolulu.
Contributors
David Clausnitzer
Loretta Metz
Joseph May
Acknowledgments
Assistance, advice, review, and/or insights:
Mick Castillo
Michael Constantinides, NRCS-PIA
Susan Cordell, USFS
Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch
David Leonard, volunteer
JB Friday, UH Forestry Extension
Rick Gordon
Basil Hansen, The Nature Conservancy
Jennifer Higashino, USFWS and NRCS
Flint Hughes, USFS
Chris Jasper, NRCS Soil Survey
Mel Johansen, The Nature Conservancy
Kathy Kawakami, US Army Pohakuloa Training Ground
Rhonda Loh, Volcanoes National Park
Kamehameha Schools/Bishop Estate
Miles Nakahara, Hawaii DOFAW
Laura Nelson, The Nature Conservancy and NRCS
Patrick Niemeyer, NRCS Soil Survey
Billy Paris, rancher
John Pipan
Jon Price, USGS
John Replogle, The Nature Conservancy
Paul Scowcroft, USFS
Earl Spence, grazing consultant
Jim Thain
Mike Tomich
Quentin Tomich
Tim Tunison, Volcanoes National Park
Jill Wagner, consultant, Future Forests
Rick Warschauer
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
| Author(s)/participant(s) | |
|---|---|
| Contact for lead author | |
| Date | |
| Approved by | |
| Approval date | |
| Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
-
Number and extent of rills:
-
Presence of water flow patterns:
-
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
-
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
-
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
-
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
-
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
-
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
-
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
-
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
-
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
-
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
-
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
-
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
-
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
-
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
-
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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