State 1
Reference State

The Reference State consists of one community phase. It is a forest of low to medium height overstory with a nearly closed upper canopy. The lower, drier elevations of this ecological site have largely been converted to naturalized grassland. Based on remnant stands in this zone, mosses, liverworts, and epiphytic ferns are less abundant than in higher, wetter areas. It is likely that this lower zone originally had a different species composition as it graded into the drier ecological site below. This state can transition into State 4 Timber Plantation by clearing and planting with introduced timber species. It transitions into State 2 Invaded Understory by weed invasion, which is accelerated by disturbance from domestic and feral ungulates. It transitions to State 5 Naturalized Grassland with Remnant Trees by mechanical clearing or gradual clearing by uncontrolled grazing and browsing by ungulates, followed by establishment of forage grasses or invasion by weedy introduced grasses.

Community 1.1
`Ohi`a lehua - olapa/hapu`u

Figure 5. Reference community phase. 8/24/06 D Clausnitzer generic photo

Figure 6. Reference community phase. 10/3/06 D Clausnitzer MU434

Figure 7. Reference community phase. 10/3/06 D Clausnitzer MU434

Figure 8. View of canopy from above. 8/8/16 D Clausnitzer generic photo

Figure 9. Forest-grassland boundary. 8/22/06 D Clausnitzer generic photo

Figure 10. Transition F164XY500 to F164XY501. 11/1/06 D Clausnitzer generic photo

This community phase is a forest consisting of four canopy strata: an open or closed upper canopy of ohia lehua 25 to 40 feet (8 to 12 meters) tall, a secondary canopy of mostly olapa 15 to 25 feet (4.6 to 12 meters) tall, a tree fern canopy 10 to 20 feet (3 to 6 meters) tall, and a diverse understory of shrubs and ferns. These forests have standing live timber of 250 to 1000 cubic feet per acre, with a representative value of about 500 cubic feet per acre. Combined overstory tree canopy cover of ohia and olapa varies from about 60% to 80%; tree fern cover ranges from 30% to 80%. Koa (Acacia koa) does not occur in this ecological site. Many ohia lehua trees branch close to the ground and have a gnarled growth form. There is usually a heavy growth of mosses, liverworts, and small ferns on tree trunks. At the lower, drier elevations of this ecological site, much of the area has been converted to naturalized grassland. Where forests remain in this zone, mosses, liverworts, and epiphytic ferns are less abundant than in higher, wetter areas. This lower zone is where species such as papala (Charpentiera spp.), olopua (Nestegis sandwicensis), poola (Claoxylon sandwicense), papala kepau (Pisonia brunoniana), hame (Antidesma spp.), and kilioe (Embelia pacifica) would have been common in the original forest. Tree fern cover would have been somewhat less than in the higher, wetter areas.

Forest overstory. The overstory consists of ohia lehua. Olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum), kawau (Ilex anomala), kolea lau nui (Myrsine lessertiana), and kopiko (Psychotria sp.) often share the canopy with ohia lehua.

Forest understory. The secondary canopy tree species is diverse. Some species that may have been more abundant in the past are now rare, such as loulu (Pritchardia lanigera and P. gordonii) and nanu (Gardenia remyi).

The tertiary canopy contains small trees but is dominated by three species of hapuu or tree ferns: hapuu (Cibotium glaucum), hapuu ii or hapuu li (Cibotium menziesii), and hapuu or Chamisso’s manfern (Cibotium chamissoi). Cibotium glaucum is the most abundant, followed by C. menziesii; C. chamissoi is the least abundant.

The lowest canopy stratum, which ranges in height from the ground to about 4.5 feet (1.5 meters), consists of seedlings and immature individuals of species in the taller strata, small shrub species, forbs, vines, sedges, grasses, and over 30 species of ferns and fern allies.

State 2
Invaded Understory State

This state consists of one community phase. It arises by invasion by introduced species of intact native forest (the Reference State) or, in some cases, of native overstory stands from which the original understory has been cleared. Native species are unable to regenerate in the highly competitive understory of introduced plants and eventually die out. With time, large introduced tree species will emerge to replace the native overstory trees and form a new overstory. When this last step has occurred, the site will have transitioned to State 3 Invaded Overstory and Understory. Disturbance of the soil and direct damage to native understory plants by introduced ungulates, particularly pigs and cattle, will speed the transition to this state by killing native plants and by creating better germination sites for introduced species. Restoration to the Reference State or a facsimile of it is possible by fencing the site, removing all ungulates, applying herbicides, and replanting native species when needed. Restoration efforts will be affected depending on the degree of invasion by introduced species and by the particular species that have invaded the site. Long term weed management and fence maintenance will be necessary.

Community 2.1
`Ohi`a lehua - strawberry guava/Kahila garland-lily (kahili ginger)

Figure 11. Invaded understory beneath ohia lehua trees. 9//11/08 D Clausnitzer generic photo

Figure 12. Invasive glenwood grass. 8/15/06 D Clausnitzer generic photo

The community has an intact or diminished overstory of ohia lehua trees with a dense understory of introduced shrubs, ferns, vines, grasses, and small trees.

Forest overstory. The overstory consists of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). Other native species are somewhat diminished.

Forest understory. The only native species remaining in the lower canopy levels are a few native trees and some hapuu (Cibotium glaucum) and hapuu li (Cibotium menziesii). Small native fern species may be diverse but less abundant than in the Reference state.

The understory is usually dominated by dense kahili ginger (Hedychium gardnerianum) and strawberry guava or waiawi (Psidium cattleianum).

State 3
Invaded Overstory and Understory State

This state is comprised of one plant community dominated by introduced species in both the overstory and understory. Understory vegetation usually is very sparse to nonexistent. Remnant individuals of a few native species may persist. This state might be considered a dead end as far as further succession. Mechanical clearing followed by establishment of introduced timber species would bring a transition to State 4 Timber Plantation; mechanical clearing followed by establishment of introduced forage specie would bring a transition to State 6 Naturalized Grassland.

Community 3.1
Strawberry guava

Figure 13. Dense strawberry guava stand. 11/27/06 D Clausnitzer generic photo

Figure 14. Strawberry guava stand root system exposed by bulldozer. D Clausnitzer generic photo

Figure 15. Closeup of exposed strawberry guava root system. D Clausnitzer generic photo

Strawberry guava is typically the dominant species because it invades sites by seeds spread by pigs and reproduces vegetatively by root suckers. In places, taller introduced tree species are common. It is possible that shifts will eventually occur in the introduced species that dominate a site, particularly if tall stature, competitive tree species are present. This would not represent a transition to another state. Sites that are completely dominated by dense stands of strawberry guava typically show no indications (death or partial death of stands; emergence of potentially taller tree species) of yielding to change in the foreseeable future.

Forest overstory. A few remnant ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) trees often remain as emergents above the canopy of introduced species, but no seedlings or saplings are likely to be present. Depending on local seed sources, strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) generally will become dominant over time. Taller statured introduced trees including silkoak (Grevillea robusta), albizia or peacocksplume (Falcataria moluccana), tropical ash (Fraxinus uhdei), and paperbark (Melaleuca quinquinervia) are dominant on some sites.

Forest understory. Kahili ginger or Kahila garland-lily (Hedychium gardnerianum) forms an extremely dense understory on many sites that do not have a closed strawberry guava overstory. Scattered individuals of native species such as hapuu (Cibotium glaucum) and uluhe (Dicranopteris linearis) may remain in the understory.

State 4
Timber Plantation State

This state consists of one community phase, which is a plantation of introduced timber tree species that have been established on forest or grazing lands. With proper management, it is not susceptible to unplanned transitions or restorations to other states.

Community 4.1
Exotic timber species/strawberry guava/Kahila garland-lily (kahili ginger)

Figure 16. Dense kahili ginger under planted exotic timber trees. 11/8/06 D Clausnitzer generic photo

This community is typically managed in the long term for economic returns. Many introduced timber species will potentially grow well in the environment of this ecological site, where they also may be free of pests that are present in their native habitats.

Forest overstory. Tree species that have been planted in the past are albizia or peacocksplume (Falcataria moluccana), redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), Nepal alder (Alnus nepalensis), and tropical ash (Fraxinus uhdei). Weeds from seed sources surrounding these sites or brought in unintentionally by humans and animals have invaded these sites and now dominate the understory where ongoing weed control has not been practiced. Other species may also be suitable.

Forest understory. The most common understory weeds are strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) and kahili ginger (Hedychium gardnerianum).

State 5
Naturalized Grassland with Remnant Trees State

This state consists of three grassland community phases that have an open canopy of native trees. These phases are maintained by grazing, which keeps preferred species from becoming too rank, and adequate recovery periods, which ensure vigor and cover of preferred species. High production of preferred grass species and extensive cover allow for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality. These factors are degraded by grazing practices that result in loss of preferred grass species leading to increase in less desirable grasses, weed invasion, and an increase in the extent of bare soil. Community phase 5.1, when subjected to continuous grazing that does not allow the preferred forage species to recover from defoliation, shifts to Community phase 5.2, which is dominated by lower value grass species but contains enough cover of preferred forages to allow for a shift back to Phase 5.1 with prescribed grazing. Longer-term continuous grazing leads to Community Phase 5.3, which consists of low value grass species and increasing cover of weedy shrubs and tree saplings. Improvement of this phase requires weed control followed by prescribed grazing.

Community 5.1
`Ohi`a lehua/kikuyugrass/common vetch

Figure 17. Grassland with ohia lehua. 1/14/08 D Clausnitzer generic photo

Canopy cover of overstory trees typically is about 25 to 40 percent. Trees provide shade and protection from the elements to livestock. However, little or no regeneration of trees occurs, so the overstory will eventually die out.

Forest overstory. The open overstory consists mostly of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha).

Forest understory. A few olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum) and hapuu (Cibotium glaucum) may be present. Kikuyugrass (Pennisetum clandestinum) is the most common preferred forage grass. Pangolagrass (Digitaria eriantha) has been established on some sites. The most common legumes are common vetch (Vicia sativa), white clover (Trifolium repens), and Greenleaf desmodium (Desmodium intortum).

Community 5.2
`Ohi`a lehua/kikuyugrass/broomsedge bluestem

Figure 19. Broomsedge bluestem. 11/28/06 D Clausnitzer MU434

This community phase is dominated by grass and grasslike species with lower forage value than kikuyugrass and pangolagrass. Cover of preferred forage grasses is still high enough to enable a shift back to phase 5.1 with improved management. Cattle can be maintained on the lower value forages, but animal growth and vigor will be reduced. Also, the number of weedy species is high, and their stature, seed production potential, and wide distribution can lead to rapid increase and a shift to Community Phase 5.3 unless management is improved.

Forest overstory. The open overstory consists mostly of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). Some strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) and common guava (Psidium guajava) may have grown into the overstory.

Forest understory. Cover of kikuyugrass (Pennisetum clandestinum) and/or pangolagrass (Digitaria eriantha) ranges about 40 to 60 percent. Weedy broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) and common rush (Juncus effusus) may have increased to 10 percent cover or more. Desirable legumes have become very rare.

Community 5.3
`Ohi`a lehua/common rush - broomsedge bluestem

Figure 20. Heavily grazed grassland with common rush. 9/26/07 D Clausnitzer generic photo

Figure 21. Heavily grazed site. 9/26/07 D Clausnitzer generic photo

This community phase is dominated by low value grasses, forbs, shrubs, and small trees. Improving the grazing regime is extremely unlikely to shift this phase to a more productive grassland phase due to the low cover of desirable species and the abundance of weeds. Frequent mowing is not worthwhile; it will keep shrubs and trees in check but will do little to improve the grass and forb community. Herbicide treatments are needed to reduce weed abundance. Resprigging of desired grass forage species may be needed, along with removal of livestock until desired species have reassumed dominance. There typically is a high population of stunted weedy trees and shrubs that is suppressed by heavy grazing and is poised to explode if grazing pressure is reduced or removed.

Forest overstory. The open overstory consists mostly of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). Some strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) and common guava (Psidium guajava) may have grown into the overstory.

Forest understory. Cover of desirable grass species is about 20% or less. Common rush (Juncus effusus) is abundant, particularly in wetter spots. Broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) is the most common grass species. A large variety of weedy forbs is present. Strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) and common guava (Psidium guajava) may be more abundant than they appear, because cattle have browsed their stems almost to ground level. If browsing stops, these species will rapidly take over a site. Thimbleberry (Rubus rosifolius) and yellow Himalayan raspberry (Rubus sawtooth blackberry) form scattered thickets.

Pathway 5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2

`Ohi`a lehua/kikuyugrass/common vetch

`Ohi`a lehua/kikuyugrass/broomsedge bluestem

This community phase degrades to Phase 5.2 by continuous grazing that weakens preferred kikuyugrass, pangolagrass, and legumes in relation to less desirable forage species such as hilograss, narrowleaf carpetgrass, and Japanese mat rush.

Pathway 5.2B
Community 5.2 to 5.1

`Ohi`a lehua/kikuyugrass/broomsedge bluestem

`Ohi`a lehua/kikuyugrass/common vetch

Community phase 5.2 degrades to phase 5.3 by long-term continuous grazing that reduces cover and competitiveness of kikuyugrass and pangolagrass. The grassland becomes dominated by inedible Japanese mat rush and/or broomsedge along with shorter undesirable grasses such as hilograss, narrowleaf carpetgrass, and yellow foxtail. There may be a large population of undesirable weedy shrubs and trees that is kept in check by heavy grazing pressure.

Pathway 5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.3

`Ohi`a lehua/kikuyugrass/broomsedge bluestem

`Ohi`a lehua/common rush - broomsedge bluestem

Community phase 5.2 can be reconverted to phase 5.1 by prescribed grazing. A prescribed grazing plan provides for intensive but temporary grazing of grasslands that ensures that cattle consume some low-value forage species along with preferred forages and allows preferred forages time to recover from defoliation. The grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing. Invading broomsedge bluestem may be controlled by mowing their seed stalks before seed set and by liming to increase soil pH.

Pathway 5.3A
Community 5.3 to 5.2

`Ohi`a lehua/common rush - broomsedge bluestem

`Ohi`a lehua/kikuyugrass/broomsedge bluestem

Herbicidal weed control measures, liming, and mechanical brush control can reduce the densities of weedy shrubs, forbs, and grasses and allow implementation of prescribed grazing.

State 6
Naturalized Grassland State

This state consists of three grassland community phases with little or no tree overstory. These phases are maintained by grazing, which keeps preferred species from becoming too tall, and adequate recovery periods, which ensure vigor and cover of preferred species. High production of preferred grass species and extensive cover allow for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality. These factors are degraded by grazing practices that result in loss of preferred grass species leading to increase in less desirable grasses, weed invasion, and an increase in the extent of bare soil. Community phase 6.1, when subjected to continuous grazing that does not allow the preferred forage species to recover from defoliation, shifts to Community phase 6.2, which is dominated by lower value grass species but contains enough cover of preferred forages to allow for a shift back to Phase 6.1 with prescribed grazing. Longer-term continuous grazing leads to Community Phase 6.3, which consists of low value grass species and increasing cover of weedy shrubs and tree saplings. Improvement of this phase requires weed control followed by prescribed grazing.

Community 6.1
Kikuyugrass/common vetch

Figure 22. Naturalized kikuyu grassland. 1/14/08 D Clausnitzer generic photo

Figure 23. Pangola (l)/carpetgrass (r) fenceline. 8/19/08 D Clausnitzer generic photo

Tree overstory is nonexistent or present with a canopy cover less than 25 percent.

Forest overstory. Where present, the overstory consists mostly of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha).

Forest understory. Kikuyugrass (Pennisetum clandestinum) is the most common preferred forage grass. Pangolagrass (Digitaria eriantha) has been established on some sites. The most common legumes are common vetch (Vicia sativa), white clover (Trifolium repens), and Greenleaf desmodium (Desmodium intortum).

Community 6.2
Kikuyugrass - broomsedge bluestem

Figure 25. Broomsedge bluestem. 11/18/06 D Clausnitzer generic photo

This community phase is dominated by grass and grasslike species with lower forage value than kikuyugrass and pangolagrass. Cover of preferred forage grasses is still high enough to enable a shift back to phase 6.1 with improved management. Cattle can be maintained on the lower value forages, but animal growth and vigor will be reduced. Also, the number of weedy species is high, and their stature, seed production potential, and wide distribution can lead to rapid increase and a shift to Community Phase 6.3 unless management is improved.

Forest overstory. Where present, the overstory consists mostly of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). Some strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) and common guava (Psidium guajava) may have grown into the overstory.

Forest understory. Cover of kikuyugrass (Pennisetum clandestinum) and/or pangolagrass (Digitaria eriantha) ranges about 40 to 60 percent. Weedy broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) and common rush (Juncus effusus) may have increased to 10 percent cover or more. Desirable legumes have become very rare

Community 6.3
Common rush - broomsedge bluestem

Figure 26. Heavily grazed site. 9/26/07 D Clausnitzer generic photo

This community phase is dominated by low value grasses, forbs, shrubs, and small trees. Improving the grazing regime is extremely unlikely to shift this phase to a more productive grassland phase due to the low cover of desirable species and the abundance of weeds. Frequent mowing is not worthwhile; it will keep shrubs and trees in check but will do little to improve the grass and forb community. Herbicide treatments are needed to reduce weed abundance. Resprigging of desired grass forage species may be needed, along with removal of livestock until desired species have reassumed dominance. There typically is a high population of stunted weedy trees and shrubs that is suppressed by heavy grazing and is poised to explode if grazing pressure is reduced or removed.

Forest overstory. Where present, the overstory consists mostly of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). Some strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) and common guava (Psidium guajava) may have grown into the overstory.

Forest understory. Cover of desirable grass species is about 20% or less. Common rush (Juncus effusus) is abundant, particularly in wetter spots. Broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) is the most common grass species. A large variety of weedy forbs is present. Strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) and common guava (Psidium guajava) may be more abundant than they appear, because cattle have browsed their stems almost to ground level. If browsing stops, these species will rapidly take over a site. Thimbleberry (Rubus rosifolius) and yellow Himalayan raspberry (Rubus sawtooth blackberry) form scattered thickets.

Pathway 6.1A
Community 6.1 to 6.2

Kikuyugrass/common vetch

Kikuyugrass - broomsedge bluestem

This community phase degrades to Phase 6.2 by continuous grazing that weakens preferred kikuyugrass, pangolagrass, and legumes in relation to less desirable forage species such as hilograss, narrowleaf carpetgrass, and Japanese mat rush.

Pathway 6.2B
Community 6.2 to 6.1

Kikuyugrass - broomsedge bluestem

Kikuyugrass/common vetch

Community phase 6.2 degrades to phase 6.3 by long-term continuous grazing that reduces cover and competitiveness of kikuyugrass and pangolagrass. The grassland becomes dominated by inedible Japanese mat rush and/or broomsedge along with shorter undesirable grasses such as hilograss, narrowleaf carpetgrass, and yellow foxtail. There may be a large population of undesirable weedy shrubs and trees that is kept in check by heavy grazing pressure.

Pathway 6.2A
Community 6.2 to 6.3

Kikuyugrass - broomsedge bluestem

Common rush - broomsedge bluestem

Community phase 6.2 can be converted to phase 6.1 by prescribed grazing. A prescribed grazing plan provides for intensive but temporary grazing of grasslands that ensures that cattle consume some low-value forage species along with preferred forages and allows preferred forages time to recover from defoliation. The grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing. Invading broomsedge bluestem may be controlled by mowing their seed stalks before seed set and by liming to increase soil pH.

Pathway 6.3A
Community 6.3 to 6.2

Common rush - broomsedge bluestem

Kikuyugrass - broomsedge bluestem

Herbicidal weed control measures, liming, and mechanical brush control can reduce the densities of weedy shrubs, forbs, and grasses and allow implementation of prescribed grazing.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

State 1, Reference State, can transition to State 2 Invaded Understory, by gradual replacement of the native understory by introduced shrubs, vines, and small trees that outcompete the native understory species. This process is accelerated by ungulate foraging that disturbs the soil surface and directly destroys native plants and prevents their regeneration.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

This state transitions to State 4 Timber Plantation Understory by mechanical removal of the original forest overstory and understory followed by planting of introduced timber species. Introduced weeds will invade and take over the unless controlled by herbicides.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

This state will transition to State 5 Naturalized Grassland with Remnant trees by clearing the forest with heavy machinery or by gradual clearing by allowing domestic or feral cattle access to the forest. Cattle eventually eat or destroy understory ferns, forbs, shrubs, and saplings, opening up the forest so that grasses will thrive. Desired forages such as kikuyugrass may then be established, or undesirable grass and rush species will establish on their own.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

It is possible to restore a facsimile of State 1 Reference State from State 2 Invaded Understory. Before restoration of native plants, introduced understory plants must be eliminated by herbicidal weed control practices, and ungulates must be excluded from the restoration site by a suitable fence. Native species that have been eliminated or greatly reduced in numbers must be restored by replanting. Biodegradable mulch such as cardboard covered with plant litter is very useful for weed control around replanted native species. Long-term control of weeds will be necessary.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

The large native ohia lehua and other tree species that form the overstory of State 2 Invaded Understory are unable to successfully regenerate due to the dense, shady understory of introduced species. Eventually the large native trees die and are replaced by introduced tree species.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

This state transitions to State 4 Timber Plantation by mechanical removal of the forest overstory and understory followed by planting of introduced timber species. Introduced understory weeds will reestablish unless controlled by herbicides.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

This state may be restored to State 5 Naturalized Grassland with Remnant Trees by mechanical clearing. Introduced forage grasses may then be seeded or sprigged into the site. Herbicide applications will be necessary before and during pasture establishment to control reemerging weed species.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

This state may transition to State 4 Timber Plantation by mechanical land clearing followed by establishment of introduced timber trees. A weedy understory will reestablish itself unless weed control is maintained.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 6

This state may be restored to State 6 Naturalized Grassland by mechanical clearing of overstory and understory vegetation. Introduced forage grasses may then be seeded or sprigged into the site. Herbicide applications will be necessary before and during forage establishment to control reemerging weed species.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 1

It is possible to restore this state to a facsimile of the Reference State. Weed control must be applied to grasses species and the many opportunistic plant species that invade the site. Weed control is be a perpetual process to capture and maintain the site. Foraging by domestic and feral ungulates must be eliminated by excluding all ungulates from the restoration site, but domestic ungulates would be useful to initially reduce grass cover and afterward to manage vegetation outside the restoration site perimeter. Extensive planting of native species would follow. Biodegradable mulch such as cardboard covered with plant litter is very useful.

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 2

Abandonment of this state, including removal of livestock, results in rapid invasion of weedy forbs, shrubs, trees, and ferns that converts the site to State 2 Invaded Understory. However, presence of large numbers of feral cattle can maintain the site as State 5, Community Phase 5.3.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 6

Native overstory species are unable regenerate in this plant community due to grazing, browsing, and trampling by ungulates, as well as competition from both desired forages and weeds. The overstory eventually dies out, resulting in treeless grassland.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 3

This state will transition to State 3 Invaded Overstory and Understory by abandonment, including removal of domestic cattle. However, if large numbers of feral cattle are present, the site will remain in State 6, Community Phase 6.3.

Restoration pathway R6A
State 6 to 5

Restoring an open overstory of native ohia lehuas to this plant community with the goal of eventual restoration to State 1 Reference would be a difficult process. Ungulate exclusion would allow rapid growth of grasses and invading weeds that would have to be controlled by herbicides. If ungulates were not excluded, planting of native species would have to be done in small exclosures.