State 1
Reference

Wet Hemlock and Red Alder Forest

Community 1.1
Western Hemlock, Red Alder, Salmonberry, and American Skunkcabbage

Structure is a mosaic of mature overstory and regenerating openings. Community 1.1 represents an absence of major disturbance from windthrow, fire or ponding for at least 80 years. This absence allows the pioneering species to form a mature canopy. Western hemlock and red alder are the dominant overstory species. Western redcedar and Douglas-fir may be present, but they are limited to drier microsites, such as nurse logs and mounds. Shrubs commonly are restricted to nurse logs, stumps, and higher microsites. Understory species include salmonberry, devilsclub, salal, American skunkcabbage, red huckleberry, thimbleberry, swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern, and sedges (Carex spp.). Common disturbances include small gap dynamics (1/2-acre openings or smaller) following windstorms and excessive ponding.

Community 1.2
Red Alder, Salmonberry, and American Skunkcabbage

Structure is tree, shrub, forb, and sedge establishment. This community consists of forest that is undergoing regeneration or stand initiation immediately following excessive ponding or windthrow, or fire. Scattered remnant mature trees and shrubs are in some areas, and large woody debris is abundant. Loss of the overstory and the fallen trees may impact hydrology by resulting in more frequent, longer periods of ponding. Successful regeneration is dependent on the local seed source, an adequate seedbed, and sufficient light and water. Rapid recolonization is limited to plants that are well adapted to saturated soil conditions much of the year. Red alder is the primary tree and establishes quickly in areas that have an open canopy. Salmonberry, thimbleberry, American skunkcabbage, and sedges begin to reestablish during this phase.

Community 1.3
Red Alder, Western Hemlock, Salmonberry, and American Skunkcabbage

Structure is single story with dense understory. This community consists of early seral forest in regeneration. Scattered remnant mature trees are present in some areas. Western hemlock regenerate on hummocks and mounds and begin to establish a canopy. Shrubs are sparse, but species such as salmonberry, devilsclub, and red huckleberry become established on fallen trees and in higher microsites. Understory species include deer fern, American skunkcabbage, and sedges.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

This pathway represents wind and storm damage or mortality from fire. Excessive ponding that results in a shallow rooting zone makes larger trees susceptible to windthrow, which may create patches of fallen trees. During rare dry years, fire may burn sporadically through a stand, causing patches of mortality and other areas may be left unburned. Very extreme windstorms or fires during very unusually dry periods may be stand-replacing.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.3

This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance.

Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Red Alder, Western Hemlock, Salmonberry, and American Skunkcabbage

Western Hemlock, Red Alder, Salmonberry, and American Skunkcabbage

This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

This pathway represents wind and storm damage or mortality from fire. Excessive ponding that results in a shallow rooting zone makes larger trees susceptible to windthrow, which may create patches of fallen trees. During rare dry years, fire may burn sporadically through a stand, causing patches of mortality and other areas may be left unburned. Very extreme windstorms or fires during very unusually dry periods may be stand-replacing.

State 2
Timber Plantation

Community 2.1
Mature Western Hemlock and Red Alder

Structure: Single story forest of even-aged trees This community is the management-controlled climax condition for this ecological site. The overstory is even-aged and exclusively or near exclusively hemlock with some codominant red alder. Trees are usually less than 100 years old. Western red cedar may be included in planting or occur naturally from adjacent seed sources depending on management objectives. Hardwoods such as maple and black cottonwood are typically less abundant but may also occur. The understory may be somewhat sparse to relatively well-vegetated with a mix of shrubs and herbaceous species, especially salmon berry, thimbleberry, skunk cabbage, and sedges. Large snags are few or absent.

Community 2.2
Regenerating Western Hemlock and Red Alder

This community consists of regenerating western hemlock and red alder forest over a large area that has been opened by timber harvest. The site may be intentionally planted or in some cases allowed to naturally regenerate as both western hemlock and red alder are relatively aggressive and capable of regenerating without assistance. Red alder often regenerates naturally at very high densities, resulting in a dense, young forest. Shrubs and mixed herbaceous species typically occupy space between planted saplings. These may include salmon berry, thimbleberry, salal, and red huckleberry. Introduced Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus) may present, usually at the expense of native shrubs or planted trees. Snags are very few or absent. Downed woody debris may be abundant or limited depending on thoroughness of its reduction during the prior timber harvest.

Community 2.3
Stem Exclusion Western Hemlock and Red Alder

Structure is single story forest of even-aged trees. This community is the interim point between regeneration and the mature state. Composition is often still dominated by red alder, but western hemlock is also abundant in the overstory. The stand remains very dense. Western red cedar and Douglas-fir may be present at a lower frequency by natural regeneration or as part of the post-harvest reforestation effort. A pre-commercial thin may be applied at or shortly before this phase to reduce inter-tree competition and maintain high growth rates. The understory is dominated by a mix of shrubs such as salmonberry and thimbleberry. Big leaf maple and black cottonwood may occur sporadically. Snags are very few or absent. Downed woody debris may be abundant or limited depending on thoroughness of its reduction during the prior timber harvest.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

This pathway represents even-aged harvest of a mature stand followed by site preparation. Tree planting may or may not be performed depending on composition objectives and confidence in natural regeneration. This pathway may also result from a stand-replacing fire followed by a salvage harvest. Removal of woody material to limit fire hazard and facilitate operability of equipment is usually performed prior to planting.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.3

This pathway represents growth of an even-aged stand alongside active weed controls to limit competition with undesired species. Thinning of saplings and pruning may or may not occur, depending on stand density or fire hazard concerns. Disturbances, such as fire, pests, and disease, are discouraged and controlled if possible.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1

This pathway represents growth of an even-aged stand that is maturing and dominates the overstory. Light thinning may or may not occur, depending on stand density or fire hazard concerns. Disturbances, such as fire, pests, and disease, are discouraged and controlled if possible.

Pathway 2.3B
Community 2.3 to 2.2

This pathway results from a stand-replacing fire or a major pest or disease event that kills all or nearly all trees, followed by replanting or natural regeneration. Salvage harvesting may occur if there is sufficient commercially viable material in the stand. Site preparation and removal of woody material is usually performed prior to planting.

State 3
Deforested

Community 3.1
Cropland or Hayland

Structure is annual or perennial non-native species monoculture. This community phase consists of a range of crops, including annually planted species, short-lived perennial species, and more permanent perennial crops. Hay and grasses and legumes for silage are included in this community.

Community 3.2
Introduced Grass and Shrubs

Structure is annual or perennial herbaceous or shrubby species. Community 3.2 is characterized by low-level or more intermittent management activity such as occasional or light grazing or sporadic mowing. This plant community is dominated by introduced weedy species and the less frequent disturbance supports a shrubbier character with thickets of regenerating broadleaved trees. The site is grazed, mowed or burned often enough to prevent re-establishment of forest. Dominant shrubs are typically invasive rhizomatous species that form thickets such as Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus). Some tougher native shrub species such as California blackberry (Rubus ursinus) and salmonberry may be interspersed. Areas where ponding or brief inundation occurs commonly support non-native rhizomatous grasses. Between shrub thickets introduced pasture species such as tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), and common velvet grass (Holcus lanatus) are dominant. Alder and black cottonwood are regularly present in seedling thickets or as individual small seedlings.

Community 3.3
Managed Perennial Grassland

Structure is perennial herbaceous species. This community is an introduced grassland that receives regular grazing or mowing disturbance and may include soil amendments such as fertilizers or lime. Weeds are aggressively controlled and desired herbaceous species are reseeded as necessary. Grazing, mowing and other weed control actions prevent the phase from transitioning to a forested state. This plant community is typically dominated by introduced perennial pasture species that are seeded after clearing or invade the site from nearby areas. Common species include tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), velvet grass (Holcus lanatus), and red fescue (Festuca rubra).

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

In the absence of agronomic and livestock management activities, seeds from surrounding weedy plant communities are transported to the site by wind, animals, or vehicle traffic, and the adapted species become established. Management activities include tilling; adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments, such as lime; mowing; burning; harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation; planting desirable herbaceous species; and implementing grazing management plans.

Pathway 3.1B
Community 3.1 to 3.3

This pathway occurs by intentional establishment of a perennial grass-dominated plant community. Often, the site will be prepped for seeding and desired pasture species artificially sown. In some cases, simply discontinuing crop production activities may allow the site to transition to grass, provided emergence of woody shrubs or trees is actively controlled with mowing, fire, or chemical treatment. Consistent grazing is essential to the maintenance of this community and to prevent establishment of woody shrubs. Other maintenance practices, such as targeted mowing, prescribed fire, chemical treatment, or other mechanical treatment are utilized as needed.

Pathway 3.2B
Community 3.2 to 3.1

This pathway represents agronomic activities. Examples include tilling; adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments, such as lime; mowing; burning; harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation; and planting desirable crop species.

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.3

This pathway represents agronomic and livestock management activities. Examples include tilling; adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments, such as lime; mowing; burning; harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation; planting desirable herbaceous species; and implementing grazing management plans.

Pathway 3.3A
Community 3.3 to 3.1

This pathway represents agronomic activities. Examples include tilling; adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments, such as lime; mowing; burning; harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation; and planting desirable crop species.

Pathway 3.3B
Community 3.3 to 3.2

In the absence of agronomic and livestock management activities, seeds from surrounding weedy plant communities are transported to the area by wind, floodwater, animals, or vehicle traffic, and the adapted species become established. Management activities include tilling; adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments, such as lime; mowing; burning; harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation; planting desirable herbaceous species; and implementing grazing management plans.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

This transition represents a shift to a timber plantation management system. This transition is typically initiated by clear cut of old forest in the reference state but can be initiated after a large stand-replacing fire in the reference state. Management actions include even-aged harvests and replanting of desired species.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

This transition is caused by an intentional clearing of land or a stand replacing fire in state 1, followed by intense, frequent disturbance such as grazing, mowing, crop production, or frequent fire to prevent trees from re-establishing. This transition can be initiated from any community phase in state 1. Disruption of the hydrologic regime by ditching and draining the site may or may not occur.

Transition R2A
State 2 to 1

This restoration occurs by artificial or natural re-establishment over time of species resembling overstory and understory diversity typical of the reference state. This transition can be initiated from any community phase in state 2. Allowing the site to naturally regenerate to shrubs and forest is usually all that is needed. In some cases, treatment of invasive species such as Himalayan blackberry may improve the rate of restoration.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

This transition is caused by an intentional clearing of land or a stand replacing fire in state 2, followed by intense, frequent disturbance such as grazing, mowing, crop production, or frequent fire to prevent trees from re-establishing. This transition can be initiated from any community phase in state 2. Disruption of the hydrologic regime by ditching and draining the site may or may not occur.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

This restoration occurs by restoration of hydrologic function and regime, and artificial or natural re-establishment over time of species resembling overstory and understory diversity typical of the reference state. Intentional planting, site preparation, and control of competing invasive weeds will accelerate this transition. This transition can be initiated from any community phase in State 3. Removal of disturbance to allow the site to naturally regenerate to shrubs and forest is often the only action that is needed.

Restoration pathway T3A
State 3 to 2

This transition occurs with a change in land management from a cleared non-forest state to a forest plantation. The site is typically treated mechanically or with fire to prep the seed bed before planting or to promote natural regeneration. This transition can be initiated from any community phase in state 3.