State 1
Reference State

Community 1.1
Western redcedar-western hemlock/American skunkcabbage-deer fern

Structure: Mosaic of mature overstory and regenerating openings The reference community represents a lack of major disturbance from windthrow or ponding for at least 80 years, which allows the pioneering species to form a mature canopy. Western redcedar is the dominant overstory species. Western hemlock, Sitka spruce, and shore pine are present, but only in drier microsites such as nurse logs and mounds. Red alder (Alnus rubra) may be in some areas; however, the site dominantly supports conifers. The overstory canopy closure typically is less than 50 percent, which results in a very dense, productive understory. The lack of disturbance and sparse canopy cover promote the growth of shrubs and forbs. Shrubs commonly are restricted to nurse logs, stumps, and higher microsites. Understory species include American skunkcabbage, deer fern, sweet gale (Myrica gale), cascara (Frangula purshiana), oval-leaf blueberry (Vaccinium ovalifolium), red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium), evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), rusty menziesia, salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and multiple species of sedges. Common disturbances include small gap dynamics (1/2-acre openings or smaller) following windstorms and excessive ponding.

Community 1.2
Bog Labrador tea/American skunkcabbage/sedge

Structure: Forb and sedge establishment Community phase 1.2 represents a forest that is undergoing regeneration or stand initiation immediately following excessive ponding or windthrow. Scattered remnant mature trees and shrubs and an abundance of woody debris may be in some areas. Loss of the overstory and the fallen trees may impact the hydrology by resulting in more ponding for longer durations. Successful regeneration is dependent on a local seed source, an adequate seedbed, and sufficient light and water (Nierenberg, 2000). Rapid recolonization is limited to plants that are well adapted to saturated soil conditions for much of the year. American skunkcabbage, bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), and sedges begin to re-establish during this phase.

Community 1.3
Western redcedar/bog Labrador tea/American skunkcabbage/sedge

Structure: Single story with dense understory Community phase 1.3 is an early seral forest in regeneration. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Western redcedar regenerates successfully in disturbed areas; it reproduces on fallen branches and trees (Minore, 1990). Shrubs such as rusty menziesia and oval-leaf blueberry also become established on fallen trees and in higher microsites. Deer fern, salmonberry, bog Labrador tea, and American skunkcabbage tend to be the most prolific understory species in this community phase.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

This pathway represents excessive ponding that results in a shallow rooting zone. The trees are susceptible to windthrow, which may create pockets of fallen trees larger than 1 acre in size. Catastrophic windstorms may be stand replacing.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.3

This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance.

Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.1

This pathway represents no further major disturbance. Continued growth over time and ongoing mortality lead to increased vertical diversification. The community begins to resemble the structure of the reference community, including small pockets of regeneration (both deciduous and coniferous trees) and a more diversified understory.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

This pathway represents a disturbance of excessive ponding that results in a shallow rooting zone. The trees are susceptible to windthrow, which may create pockets of fallen trees larger than 1 acre in size. Catastrophic windstorms may be stand replacing.

State 2
Converted State

Community 2.1
Managed Cropland and Hayland

Community phase 2.1 may consist of a range of crops, including annually planted species, short-lived perennial species, and more permanent shrubby plants. Hay and grasses and legumes for silage are included in this community phase. Structure: Annual or perennial non-native species monoculture

Community 2.2
Non-native Grassland and Shrubland

Community phase 2.2 is characterized by low-level agronomic or management activity such as adding soil nutrients, intensive grazing management, regular mowing, or weed control. This plant community commonly consists dominantly of introduced weedy species. Areas that have extremely low fertility or are subject to heavy grazing pressure have a higher proportion of annual, stoloniferous, or rhizomatous species. Wetland areas support dominantly non-native rhizomatous grasses. The plant community may include remnants of introduced pasture species that commonly are seeded. Structure: Annual or perennial herbaceous or shrubby species

Community 2.3
Managed Grassland

Community phase 2.3 receives regular agronomic inputs, including adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments such as lime, implementing grazing management plans, regular mowing, controlling weeds, and reseeding as needed. This plant community typically includes introduced perennial pasture and hay species that commonly are seeded. In areas of historic native grassland, mixtures of perennial and annual native species may be seeded and managed by appropriate agronomic and livestock management activities. Minor amounts of introduced species that commonly are in non-native grassland and shrubland communities (community phase 2.2) are in this phase. Structure: Perennial herbaceous species

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

In the absence of agronomic and livestock management activities, seeds from surrounding weedy plant communities will be transported to the site by wind, floodwater, animals, or vehicle traffic. Adapted species will become established. Management activities include tilling, adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments such as lime, mowing, burning, harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation, planting to desirable herbaceous species, and implementing grazing management plans.

Pathway 2.1B
Community 2.1 to 2.3

This pathway represents agronomic and livestock management activities, including tilling, adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments such as lime, mowing, burning, harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation, planting to desirable herbaceous species, and implementing grazing management plans.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.1

This pathway represents agronomic activities such as tilling, adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments such as lime, mowing, burning, harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation, and planting to desirable crop species.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.3

This pathway represents agronomic and livestock management activities, including tilling, adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments such as lime, mowing, burning, harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation, planting to desirable herbaceous species, and implementing grazing management plans.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1

This pathway represents agronomic activities, including tilling, adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments such as lime, mowing, burning, harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation, and planting to desirable crop species.

Pathway 2.3B
Community 2.3 to 2.2

In the absence of agronomic and livestock management activities, seeds from surrounding weedy plant communities will be transported to the area by wind, floodwater, animals, or vehicle traffic. Adapted species will become established. Management activities include tilling, adding soil nutrients and other soil amendments such as lime, mowing, burning, harvesting or chemically controlling vegetation, planting to desirable herbaceous species, and implementing grazing management plans.

Transition T1
State 1 to 2

This pathway represents a change in land use, including modifications to the hydrologic function to develop pasture and agriculture. Non-native seed disbursement is introduced (intentionally or unintentionally), which alters the reference community.

Restoration pathway T2
State 2 to 1

This pathway represents a transition to restore the natural hydrologic function and native plant habitat. Native seed sources and extensive management and mitigation of brush and invasive species are needed to restore the community.