State 1
Reference State

Community 1.1
Sitka spruce/salal-salmonberry/western swordfern-false lily of the valley

Structure: Mature forest with a mosaic of trees, shrubs, and forbs Sitka spruce is the primary overstory tree, but western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), shore pine (Pinus contorta var. contorta), and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) may be present. Sitka spruce is considered a seral tree species as compared to western hemlock, but several factors have contributed to its dominance in late successional forests (Taylor, 1990). Sitka spruce is highly tolerant of salt spray and grows well in mineral-rich soils that have low pH and high cation-exchange capacity. These factors tend to support the growth and regeneration of Sitka spruce in coastal ecosystems (Peterson, 1997). Gaps in the mid canopy and overstory allow sunlight to reach the ground; thus, a majority of the understory plants establish in these gaps. The dense canopy created by the multiple age groups of trees may block most of the sunlight from the forest floor, which leads to a sparse understory or lush herbaceous understory in some areas. Red alder may also be in the gaps and openings. Common understory species include salal, salmonberry, evergreen huckleberry, red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa), red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium), rusty menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea), western swordfern, deer fern (Blechnum spicant), false lily of the valley, and Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana). Species such as slough sedge (Carex obnupta), coastal hedgenettle (Stachys chamissonis), common ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), and threepetal bedstraw (Galium trifidum) may be in depressions or microsites that have a high water table or are subject to intermittent ponding.

Community 1.2
Red alder/salmonberry-red elderberry/western swordfern

Structure: Open forest with abundant regeneration, snags, and downed woody debris Community phase 1.2 is an early seral plant community that has been impacted by a stand-replacing disturbance such as a wildfire, a large-scale wind event, or mass movement. Few, if any, trees are in the overstory. Standing, decaying snags are prevalent. The understory is dominantly early seral tree, shrub, and forb species such as red alder, salmonberry, red elderberry, red huckleberry, and western swordfern. Some grasses will establish, but they will be replaced by shrubs over time. Depending on the severity of the disturbance, tree seedlings and saplings typically will establish within 3 to 10 years.

Community 1.3
Red alder-Sitka spruce/salmonberry-red elderberry/western swordfern

Structure: Dense single story Community phase 1.3 is an early seral forest in regeneration. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Species composition depends on the natural seed sources present and the intensity of disturbance. After a moderate or severe disturbance, shrubs likely will outcompete tree seedlings. Red alder, red huckleberry, red elderberry, evergreen huckleberry, western swordfern, and salmonberry may be abundant depending on the availability of sunlight. Seed sources for tree species are the surrounding undisturbed forested areas and survivors of the disturbance. This results in a mixed stand that could include Sitka spruce, red alder, Douglas-fir, shore pine, western hemlock, and western redcedar.

Community 1.4
Sitka spruce-red alder/salmonberry-salal/western swordfern-false lily of the valley

Structure: Dense single story with diminished understory Community phase 1.4 is a forest in the competitive exclusion stage. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Competition among individual trees for available water and nutrients increases. Sitka spruce is dominant in the overstory; however, more shade-intolerant species such as western hemlock, Douglas-fir, and western redcedar may be present. The canopy closure is nearly 100 percent; thus, the shrub and forb layers are diminished. Some understory species better adapted to at least partial shade will begin to increase in abundance. Over time, the forest will begin to self-thin due to the elevated competition.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Sitka spruce/salal-salmonberry/western swordfern-false lily of the valley

Red alder/salmonberry-red elderberry/western swordfern

This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, timber management, a large-scale wind event, a major insect infestation, or large mass movement that leads to the stand initiation phase of forest development.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Red alder/salmonberry-red elderberry/western swordfern

Red alder-Sitka spruce/salmonberry-red elderberry/western swordfern

This pathway represents growth over time with no further significant disturbance.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Red alder-Sitka spruce/salmonberry-red elderberry/western swordfern

Red alder/salmonberry-red elderberry/western swordfern

This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, timber management, a large-scale wind event, a major insect infestation, or large mass movement that leads to the stand initiation phase of forest development.

Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.4

Red alder-Sitka spruce/salmonberry-red elderberry/western swordfern

Sitka spruce-red alder/salmonberry-salal/western swordfern-false lily of the valley

This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance.

Pathway 1.4B
Community 1.4 to 1.1

Sitka spruce-red alder/salmonberry-salal/western swordfern-false lily of the valley

Sitka spruce/salal-salmonberry/western swordfern-false lily of the valley

This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance.

Pathway 1.4A
Community 1.4 to 1.2

Sitka spruce-red alder/salmonberry-salal/western swordfern-false lily of the valley

Red alder/salmonberry-red elderberry/western swordfern

This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, timber management, a large-scale wind event, a major insect infestation, or large mass movement that leads to the stand initiation phase of forest development.

State 2
Disturbed State

Community 2.1
Red alder/salmonberry-Scotch broom/western swordfern

Structure: Open forest with regeneration and downed woody debris Community phase 2.1 represents a recently disturbed forest that is naturally regenerating. Large woody debris commonly is prolific following large-scale disturbances. This inhibits the establishment of vegetation under natural conditions. Areas that are not replanted immediately (1 to 3 years) after timber harvesting or a large-scale disturbance may become vulnerable to infestation by invasive species. Typically, commercially managed forests will be replanted following disturbance. The species preference depends on site conditions and long-term economic decisions. Overall, species biodiversity is diminished in forests managed for short-rotation timber. Natural reforestation depends on available seed sources following disturbance. Early seral species such as red alder and salmonberry tend to regenerate quickly under abundant sunlight. The plant community composition typically is homogenous and even aged. Areas that are not replanted or actively managed are vulnerable to infestation by invasive species such as Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius).

Community 2.2
Sitka spruce-red alder/Scotch broom-salmonberry/western swordfern

Structure: Single story Community phase 2.2 represents an even-aged, regenerating forest. Sitka spruce, western hemlock, shore pine, and Douglas-fir can regenerate quickly on nurse logs or in recently disturbed soils. A higher soil temperature favors seed germination of Sitka spruce; thus, it commonly is the first coniferous tree species to re-establish following logging (Peterson, 1997). Shade-intolerant red alder remains a large component in the overstory until it reaches maturity (Fonda, 1974). Vegetation in areas that have been replanted commonly is dense and even aged, and understory species are sparse in areas that have high percentage of canopy cover. Salmonberry, common gorse, and Scotch broom increase in prominence in areas that receive abundant sunlight. Management techniques such as pre-commercial or commercial thinning and mitigation of invasive species will accelerate the maturation and improve the health of the forest.

Community 2.3
Sitka spruce-western hemlock/salal-salmonberry

Structure: Dense single story with diminished understory Community phase 2.3 represents a maturing conifer forest that has increased species diversity. A shrubby understory of shade-tolerant species will develop; however, common gorse likely will remain in areas where there are openings in the canopy. The dense, shrubby understory is prone to wildfires. Commercial logging operations commonly take place during this phase as the trees reach economical maturity in size and volume. It is presumed that without timber management during this phase, an old-growth stand of Sitka spruce and western hemlock will develop.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance or active forest management.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.3

This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance or active forest management.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1

This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, a large-scale wind event, a major insect or disease infestation, large mass movement, or timber harvesting that leads to the stand initiation phase of forest development.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

This pathway represents a major disturbance that removes most of the overstory. Large-scale disturbances can increase the vulnerability of the site to infestation by invasive species if a seed source is nearby or introduced into the site. This type of disturbance will impact the natural feedbacks that maintained the reference state.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

This pathway represents intensive management to restore the historic plant community by creating a closed canopy with natural gaps that allow understory species to regenerate.