Physiographic features

This site occurs on fan remnants, barrier beaches, beach plains, and inset fans on all exposures. Slopes range from 0 to 15 percent, but slope gradients of 2 to 8 percent are typical. Elevations are 4200 to 6900 feet.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Climatic features

Nevada’s climate is predominantly arid, with large daily ranges of temperature, infrequent severe storms, heavy snowfall in the higher mountains, and great location variations with elevation. Three basic geographical factors largely influence Nevada’s climate: continentality, latitude, and elevation. Continentality is the most important factor. The strong continental effect is expressed in the form of both dryness and large temperature variations. Nevada lies on the eastern, lee side of the Sierra Nevada Range, a massive mountain barrier that markedly influences the climate of the State. The prevailing winds are from the west, and as the warm moist air from the Pacific Ocean ascend the western slopes of the Sierra Range, the air cools, condensation occurs and most of the moisture falls as precipitation. As the air descends the eastern slope, it is warmed by compression, and very little precipitation occurs. The effects of this mountain barrier are felt not only in the West but throughout the state, with the result that the lowlands of Nevada are largely desert or steppes. The temperature regime is also affected by the blocking of the inland-moving maritime air. Nevada sheltered from maritime winds, has a continental climate with well-developed seasons and the terrain responds quickly to changes in solar heating.
Nevada lies within the mid-latitude belt of prevailing westerly winds which occur most of the year. These winds bring frequent changes in weather during the late fall, winter and spring months, when most of the precipitation occurs. To the south of the mid-latitude westerlies, lies a zone of high pressure in subtropical latitudes, with a center over the Pacific Ocean. In the summer, this high-pressure belt shifts northward over the latitudes of Nevada, blocking storms from the ocean. The resulting weather is mostly clear and dry during the summer and early fall, with scattered thundershowers. The eastern portion of the state receives significant summer thunderstorms generated from monsoonal moisture pushed up from the Gulf of California, known as the North American monsoon. The monsoon system peaks in August and by October the monsoon high over the Western U.S. begins to weaken and the precipitation retreats southward towards the tropics (NOAA 2004).
The climate associated with this site is semiarid, characterized by cool, moist winters and warm, dry summers. Average annual precipitation is 5 to 8 inches. Mean annual air temperature is 45 to 50 degrees F. The average growing season is about 100 to 120 days.


Monthly mean precipitation is:
January 0.65; February 0.58; March 0.69;
April 0.96; May 1.23; June 0.94; July 0.46;
August 0.62; September 0.47; October 0.76;
November 0.63; December 0.59.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Influencing water features

There are no influencing water features associated with this site.

Soil features

The soils associated with this site are very deep and well drained to somewhat excessively drained and are formed in alluvium from mixed rocks. They are moderately to strongly alkaline and calcareous throughout. Permeability is slow to moderately rapid and runoff is medium to high. The available water holding capacity of the soil is very low. They have a typic-aridic soil moisture regime and a mesic temperature regime. The potential for sheet and rill erosion is slight. Soil correlated with this site include Gravier, Izamatch, Jurado, Loray, Summermute, Sycomat and Yelbrick.

The representative soil component is Summermute, classified as a Loamy-skeletal, carbonatic, mesic, Durinodic Haplocalcids. Diagnostic horizons include an ochric epipedon from the soil surface to 11 inches and a calcic horizon from 11 to 43 inches. Duric features occur from 16 to 43 inches, with cementation of secondary calcium carbonate and secondary silica. Clay content in the particle control section averages 10 to 18 percent. Rock fragments range from 35 to 60 percent, mainly gravel. Reaction is moderately alkaline or strongly alkaline. Effervescence is strongly effervescent to violently effervescent.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Animal community

Livestock Interpretations:
This site is suitable for livestock grazing. Grazing management considerations including timing, intensity, frequency, and duration of grazing. Traditionally, shadscale plant communities provided good winter forage for the expanding sheep and cattle industry in the arid West. This site continues to provide valuable forage for livestock operations. Indian ricegrass is highly palatable to all classes of livestock in both green and cured condition. It supplies a source of green feed before most other native grasses have produced much new growth. Indian ricegrass is a preferred forage species for livestock and wildlife (Cook 1962, Booth et al. 2006). This species is often heavily utilized in winter because it cures well (Booth et al. 2006). It is also readily utilized in early spring, being a source of green feed before most other perennial grasses have produced new growth (Quinones 1981). Booth et al. (2006) note that the plant does well when utilized in winter and spring. Cook and Child (1971) however, found that repeated heavy grazing reduced crown cover, which may reduce seed production, density, and basal area of these plants. Additionally, heavy early spring grazing reduces plant vigor and stand density (Stubbendieck 1985). In eastern Idaho, productivity of Indian ricegrass was at least 10 times greater in undisturbed plots than in heavily grazed ones (Pearson 1965). Cook and Child (1971) found significant reduction in plant cover even after 7 years of rest from heavy (90%) and moderate (60%) spring use. The seed crop may be reduced where grazing is heavy (Bich et al. 1995). Tolerance to grazing increases after May, thus spring deferment may be necessary for stand enhancement (Pearson 1964, Cook and Child 1971); however, utilization of less than 60% is recommended. In summary, adaptive management is required to manage this bunchgrass well.
Bottlebrush squirreltail a minor component on this site, generally increases in abundance when moderately grazed or protected (Hutchings and Stewart 1953). In addition, moderate trampling by livestock in big sagebrush rangelands of central Nevada enhanced bottlebrush squirreltail seedling emergence compared to un-trampled conditions. Heavy trampling however was found to significantly reduce germination sites (Eckert et al. 1987). Squirreltail is more tolerant of grazing than Indian ricegrass but all bunchgrasses are sensitive to over utilization within the growing season.
When actively growing, galleta provides good to excellent forage for cattle and horses and fair forage for domestic sheep. Although not preferred, all classes of livestock may use galleta when it is dry. Domestic sheep show greater use in winter than summer months and typically feed upon central portions of galleta tufts, leaving coarser growth around the edges. Galleta may prove somewhat coarse to domestic sheep. Needleandthread is not grazing tolerant and will be one of the first grasses to decrease under heavy grazing pressure (Smoliak et al. 1972, Tueller and Blackburn 1974). Heavy grazing is likely to reduce basal area of these plants (Smoliak et al. 1972). With the reduction in competition from deep rooted perennial bunchgrasses, the rhizomatous galleta grass will likely increase (Smoliak et al. 1972). King's desertgrass is an undesirable forage for livestock.
Shadscale is a valuable browse species for a wide variety of wildlife and livestock (Blaisdell and Holmgren 1984). The spinescent growth habit of shadscale lends to its browsing tolerance with no more than 15 to 20% utilization by sheep being reported (Blaisdell and Holmgren 1984) and significantly less utilization by cattle. Increased presence of shadscale within grazed versus ungrazed areas is generally a result of the decreased competition from more heavily browsed associates (Cibils et al. 1998). Reduced competition from more palatable species in heavily grazed areas may increase shadscale germination and establishment. Chambers and Norton (1993) found shadscale establishment higher under spring than winter browsing as well as heavy compared to light browsing. During years of below average precipitation, shadscale has been found very susceptible to grazing pressure regardless of season (Chambers and Norton 1993). Following fire, grazing exclusion for 2 or more years is beneficial for revegetation of shadscale communities as first year shadscale seedlings lack spines and are highly susceptible to browsing. Spines develop in the second year (Zielinski 1994).
Budsage is palatable and nutritious forage for domestic sheep in the winter and spring although it is known to cause mouth sores in lambs. Bud sage can be poisonous or fatal to calves when eaten in quantity (Stubbendieck et al. 1992). Bud sagebrush is highly susceptible to effects of browsing. It decreases under browsing due to year-long palatability of its buds and is particularly susceptible to browsing in the spring when it is physiologically most active (Chambers and Norton 1993, Harper et al. 1990). Heavy browsing (>50%) may kill bud sagebrush rapidly (Wood and Brotherson 1986). Budsage, while desired by cattle in spring, is poisonous to cattle when consumed alone.
Winterfat is an important forage plant for livestock, especially during winter when forage is scarce. Abusive grazing practices have reduced or eliminated winterfat on some areas even though it is fairly resistant to browsing. Effects depend on severity and season of grazing. Winterfat, a highly nutritious winter feed shows similar results to bud sagebrush with significant declines in density with late winter or early spring grazing (Harper et al. 1990). Interestingly the same 54 year study also showed winterfat density decreasing in the ungrazed plots. Greenmolly provides excellent forage for sheep and cattle, and is often used as a winter forage, when it is high in protein.
In summary, overgrazing causes a decrease in Indian ricegrass along with bud sagebrush, while shadscale may initially increase. Spring grazing year after year can be detrimental to bud sagebrush and bunchgrasses. Continued abusive grazing leads to increased bare ground and invasion by annual weeds (e.g., cheatgrass, halogeton, and tansy mustard). Shadscale may become dominant with an annual understory. With further deterioration, shadscale declines, bare ground increases, soil redistribution accelerates and site productivity decreases. On some soils, erosion can result in increased surface salts and development of desert pavement. Reestablishment of perennials is limited in areas of extensive desert pavement. Fire is a very infrequent and patchy event in these salt desert shrub communities; however, where it has occurred the shrub community is greatly reduced and annual exotic weeds will increase if present. Repeated fire within a 10 to 20 year timeframe has the potential to convert this site to an annual weed dominated system. Knowledge of successful rehabilitation strategies in these droughty plant communities is limited grass was at least 10 times greater in undisturbed plots than in heavily grazed ones (Pearson 1965). Cook and Child (1971) found significant reduction in plant cover even after 7 years of rest from heavy (90%) and moderate (60%) spring use. The seed crop may be reduced where grazing is heavy (Bich et al. 1995). Tolerance to grazing increases after May, thus spring deferment may be necessary for stand enhancement (Pearson 1964, Cook and Child 1971); however, utilization of less than 60% is recommended. Adaptive management is required to manage this bunchgrass well.
Stocking rates vary over time depending upon season of use, climate variations, site, and previous and current management goals. A safe starting stocking rate is an estimated stocking rate that is fine-tuned by the client by adaptive management through the year and from year to year.
Wildlife interpretations:
This site provides valuable habitat for several species of wildlife. Shadscale is a valuable browse species, providing a source of palatable, nutritious forage for a wide variety of wildlife particularly during spring and summer before the hardening of spiny twigs. (Jameson 1952, Welch et al. 1987). Shadscale provides feed for wild ungulates: mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) browse shadscale, especially during winter (Bartmann 1983). Although it is not preferred, shadscale is also browsed in winter by pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) (Beal and Smith 1970).
Shadscale habitats throughout northeastern Nevada are important home ranges for small mammals. The chisel-toothed kangaroo rat (Dipodomys microps) feed on shadscale foliage and use shadscale habitats during the spring, summer, and fall. Deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) use shadscale habitats all year (O’farrell and Clark 1986). Shadscale leaves and seeds are preferred forage for jackrabbits (Lepus californicus) (Currie and Goodwin 1966). The Great Basin kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii) also feeds on shadscale foliage (Kenagy 1973).
Several bird species will eat the fruit and use shadscale habitats for cover and nesting sites. The horned lark (Eremophila alpestris) occurs throughout shadscale communities. Although less commonly apparent the Brewer's sparrow (Spizella breweri) and sage thrasher (Oreoscoptes montanus) also occur in shadscale habitat. Other species, observed occasionally throughout breeding season in shadscale habitat include: northern harrier (Circus cyaneus), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) , ferruginos hawk (Buteo regalis), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), American kestrel (Falco sparverius) , prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus), mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia), short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), violet-green swallow (Tachycineta thalassina), cliff swallow (Petrochelidon), bam swallow (Hirundo rustica), common raven (Corvus corax), loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus), vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus), black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza bilineata), and western meadowlark (Sternella neglecta) (Medin 1990).
It should be noted the loss of shadscale and associated shrubs has a negative effect on golden eagle habitat. The golden eagle is listed as a threatened species throughout the United States. Areas of shadscale shrub-steppe provide cover and forage for black-tailed jackrabbits, which are a major food source of golden eagles. Shadscale should be maintained within 1.9 miles of golden eagle nests in order to maintain the species (Kochert et al. 1999).
Reptile and amphibian distribution is not widely studied throughout the intermountain cold desert shrub region; however, several reptiles and amphibians are recorded to occur throughout Nevada, where shadscale, budsage, winterfat and other desert shrubs are known to grow (Bernard and Brown 1977). In shadscale habitat specifically, western rattle snakes (Crotalus viridis) and gopher snakes (Pituophis catenifer catenifer) were recorded in a study by Diller and Johnson (1988). Reptile species including: eastern racer (Coluber constrictor), ringneck snake (Diadophis punctatus), night snakes (Hypsiglena torquata), Sonoran mountain kingsnakes (Lampropeltis pyromelana), striped whipsnakes (Masticophis taeniatus), gopher snakes (Pituophis catenifer), long-nosed snakes (Rhinocheilus lecontei), wandering gartersnakes (Thamnophis elegans vagrans), sidewinders (Crotalus cerastes), Great Basin rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus lutosus), Great Basin collared lizard (Crotaphytus bicinctores), long-nosed leopard lizard (Gamelia copeii), short-horned lizard (Phrynosoma douglasii), desert-horned lizard (Phrynosoma platyrhinos), western fence lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis), northern side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana stansburiana), banded gecko (Coleonyx variegatus), desert iguana (Diposaurus dorsalis), chuckwalla (Sauromalus ater), zebra-tailed lizard (Callisaurus draconoides), pigmy horned-lizard (Phrynosoma douglasii), desert night lizard (Xantusia vigilis), whip-tailed lizard (Aspidoscelis tigris tigris) and western skinks (Plestiodon skiltonianus) occur in areas where sagebrush is dominant. Similarly, amphibians such as: western toads, Woodhouse’s toads (Anaxyrus woodhousii), northern leopard frogs (Lithobates pipiens), Columbia spotted frogs (Rana luteiventris), bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), and Great Basin spadefoots (Spea intermontana), California toads (Anaxyrus boreas halophilus), Amargosa toads (Anaxyrus nelsoni), Sonoran toads (Anaxyrus alvarius), red-spotted toads (Bufo punctatus) and mountain toad (Bufo cavifrons), also occur throughout the Great Basin in areas saltbush and black greasewood species are dominant (Hamilton 2004).
Budsage is palatable, nutritious forage for upland game birds, small game and big game in winter. Budsage is rated as "regularly, frequently, or moderately taken" by mule deer in Nevada in winter and is utilized by bighorn sheep in summer, but the importance of budsage in the diet of bighorns is not known. Budsage comprises 18 – 35% of a pronghorn’s diet during the spring where it is available. Chukar will utilize the leaves and seeds of bud sage.
Winterfat is an important forage plant for wildlife, especially during winter when forage is scarce. Winterfat seeds are eaten by rodents. Winterfat is a staple food for black-tailed jackrabbit. Mule deer and pronghorn antelope browse winterfat. Winterfat is used for cover by rodents. It is potential nesting cover for upland game birds, especially when grasses grow up through its crown.
Indian ricegrass is eaten by pronghorn in "moderate" amounts whenever available. A number of heteromyid rodents inhabiting desert rangelands show preference for seed of Indian ricegrass. Indian ricegrass is an important component of jackrabbit diets in spring and summer. In Nevada, Indian ricegrass may even dominate jackrabbit diets during the spring through early summer months. Indian ricegrass seed provides food for many species of birds. Doves, for example, eat large amounts of shattered Indian ricegrass seed lying on the ground. Galleta provides moderately palatable forage when actively growing and relatively unpalatable forage during dormant periods. Galleta provides poor cover for most wildlife species. King's desertgrass is an undesirable forage for wildlife.
Changes in plant community composition could affect the distribution and presence of wildlife species and proper management is important to maintain healthy shadscale communities.

Hydrological functions

Runoff is very low to high. Permeability is slow to moderately rapid. Rills are none to rare. A few may occur on steeper slopes after summer convection storms. These will be relatively short (<5 ft), meandering and not connected. Water flow patterns are none to rare, but can occur in areas subjected to summer convection storms. Flow patterns relatively short (<10 ft) and stable. Pedestals are none to rare with occurrence typically limited to areas within water flow patterns. Terracettes are none to rare, if occuring they are short (< 1 ft) and stable. Sparse shrub canopy and associated litter provide some protection from raindrop impact and opportunity for snow capture. Deep-rooted perennial bunchgrasses (Indian ricegrass) reduce runoff and aids in infiltration.

Recreational uses

Aesthetic value is derived from the diverse floral and faunal composition and the colorful flowering of wild flowers and shrubs during the spring and early summer. This site offers rewarding opportunities to photographers and for nature study. This site has potential for upland and big game hunting.

Other products

Seeds of shadscale were used by Native Americans of Arizona, Utah and Nevada for bread and mush. Indian ricegrass was traditionally eaten by some Native Americans. The Paiutes used seed as a reserve food source.

Other information

Winterfat adapts well to most site conditions, and its extensive root system stabilizes soil. However, winterfat is intolerant of flooding, excess water, and acidic soils.

Type locality

Other references

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Contributors

RK
T. Stringham/P.Novak-Echenique