Physiographic features

This site occurs on barrier beaches, fan remnants, and alluvial flats on all exposures. Slopes range from 0 to 30 percent, but slope gradients of 2 to 15 percent are most typical. Elevations are 4200 to 6900 feet.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Climatic features

Nevada’s climate is predominantly arid, with large daily ranges of temperature, infrequent severe storms, heavy snowfall in the higher mountains, and great location variations with elevation. Three basic geographical factors largely influence Nevada’s climate: continentality, latitude, and elevation. Continentality is the most important factor. The strong continental effect is expressed in the form of both dryness and large temperature variations. Nevada lies on the eastern, lee side of the Sierra Nevada Range, a massive mountain barrier that markedly influences the climate of the State. The prevailing winds are from the west, and as the warm moist air from the Pacific Ocean ascend the western slopes of the Sierra Range, the air cools, condensation occurs and most of the moisture falls as precipitation. As the air descends the eastern slope, it is warmed by compression, and very little precipitation occurs. The effects of this mountain barrier are felt not only in the West but throughout the state, with the result that the lowlands of Nevada are largely desert or steppes. The temperature regime is also affected by the blocking of the inland-moving maritime air. Nevada sheltered from maritime winds, has a continental climate with well-developed seasons and the terrain responds quickly to changes in solar heating.
Nevada lies within the mid-latitude belt of prevailing westerly winds which occur most of the year. These winds bring frequent changes in weather during the late fall, winter and spring months, when most of the precipitation occurs. To the south of the mid-latitude westerlies, lies a zone of high pressure in subtropical latitudes, with a center over the Pacific Ocean. In the summer, this high-pressure belt shifts northward over the latitudes of Nevada, blocking storms from the ocean. The resulting weather is mostly clear and dry during the summer and early fall, with scattered thundershowers. The eastern portion of the state receives significant summer thunderstorms generated from monsoonal moisture pushed up from the Gulf of California, known as the North American monsoon. The monsoon system peaks in August and by October the monsoon high over the Western U.S. begins to weaken and the precipitation retreats southward towards the tropics (NOAA 2004).
The climate associated with this site is semiarid, characterized by cool, moist winters and warm, dry summers. Average annual precipitation is 5 to 8 inches. Mean annual air temperature is 47 to 52 degrees F. The average growing season is about 100 to 120 days.


Average annual precipitation at the Wendover climate station (429382)is 4.59 inches. Monthly mean precipitation at the Wendover climate station is as follows:
January 0.28; February 0.28; March 0.37;
April 0.48; May 0.72; June 0.51; July 0.25;
August 0.34; September 0.34; October 0.47; November 0.29; December 0.25.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Influencing water features

There are no influencing water features associated with this site.

Soil features

The soils associated with this site have formed in alluvium from mixed rock sources which are influenced by calcareous loess. The soils are typically moderately coarse-textured in the upper soil profile. Water-holding capacity is very low to low and the soils are well to somewhat excessively drained. These soils are moderately to strongly alkaline and calcareous and there are high volumes of rock fragments throughout the soil profile. Runoff is very low to high. Soil series associated with this site include: Bienfait, Izamatch, Cliffdown, Gravier, Hiko Springs, Katelana, Kawich, Luning, Piltdown, Summermute, Sycomat, and Yelbrick.

The representative soil component (NV766 MU 1510) is Izamatch, classified as a sandy-skeletal, mixed, mesic Typic Torriorthent. Diagnostic horizons include an ochric epipedon from the soil surface to 7 inches.
Identifiable secondary carbonates occur from 3 to 60 inches. Clay content in the particle control section averages 0 to 8 percent. Rock fragments range from 35 to 75 percent, pre-dominantly gravel. Reaction is moderately alkaline or strongly alkaline. Effervescence is violently effervescent. Lithology consists of mixed rocks influenced by calcareous loess.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Animal community

Livestock Interpretations:
This site is suitable for livestock grazing. Grazing management considerations include timing, duration and intensity of grazing.
Traditionally, shadscale plant communities provided good winter forage for the expanding sheep and cattle industry in the arid West. Indian ricegrass is the dominant grass on this site and is a preferred forage species for livestock and wildlife (Cook 1962, Booth et al. 2006). Indian ricegrass is highly palatable to all classes of livestock in both green and cured condition. It supplies a source of green forage before most other native grasses have produced much new growth. This species is often heavily utilized in winter because it cures well (Booth et al. 2006). It is also readily utilized in early spring, being a source of green feed before most other perennial grasses have produced new growth (Quinones 1981). Booth et al. (2006) note that the plant does well when utilized in winter and spring. Cook and Child (1971) however, found that repeated heavy grazing reduced crown cover, which may reduce seed production, density, and basal area of these plants. Additionally, heavy early spring grazing reduces plant vigor and stand density (Stubbendieck 1985). In eastern Idaho, productivity of Indian ricegrass was at least 10 times greater in undisturbed plots than in heavily grazed ones (Pearson 1965). Cook and Child (1971) found significant reduction in plant cover even after 7 years of rest from heavy (90%) and moderate (60%) spring use. The seed crop may be reduced where grazing is heavy (Bich et al. 1995). Tolerance to grazing increases after May, thus spring deferment may be necessary for stand enhancement (Pearson 1964, Cook and Child 1971); however, utilization of less than 60% is recommended. In summary, adaptive management is required to manage this bunchgrass well.
Sand dropseed provides fair to good forage for livestock. Sand dropseed's value as livestock forage is regional and dependent upon season. If fall rains are adequate, sand dropseed may have a period of renewed growth, producing new shoots in old sheaths. The persistent green base throughout winter makes sand dropseed an important desert winter range plant. In general, sand dropseed provides fair winter forage for domestic sheep and is most preferred by cattle of dune rangelands.
Bottlebrush squirreltail a minor component on this site, generally increases in abundance when moderately grazed or protected (Hutchings and Stewart 1953). In addition, moderate trampling by livestock in big sagebrush rangelands of central Nevada enhanced bottlebrush squirreltail seedling emergence compared to un-trampled conditions. Heavy trampling however was found to significantly reduce germination sites (Eckert et al. 1987). Squirreltail is more tolerant of grazing than Indian ricegrass but all bunchgrasses are sensitive to over utilization within the growing season.
When actively growing, galleta provides good to excellent forage for cattle and horses and fair forage for domestic sheep. Although not preferred, all classes of livestock may use galleta when it is dry. Domestic sheep show greater use in winter than summer months and typically feed upon central portions of galleta tufts, leaving coarser growth around the edges. Galleta may prove somewhat coarse to domestic sheep.
Shadscale is a valuable browse species for a wide variety of wildlife and livestock (Blaisdell and Holmgren 1984). Shadscale provides good browse for domestic sheep. Shadscale leaves and seeds are an important component of domestic sheep and cattle winter diets. The spinescent growth habit of shadscale lends to its browsing tolerance with no more than 15 to 20% utilization by sheep being reported (Blaisdell and Holmgren 1984) and significantly less utilization by cattle. Increased presence of shadscale within grazed versus ungrazed areas is generally a result of the decreased competition from more heavily browsed associates (Cibils et al. 1998). Reduced competition from more palatable species in heavily grazed areas may increase shadscale germination and establishment. Chambers and Norton (1993) found shadscale establishment higher under spring than winter browsing as well as heavy compared to light browsing. During years of below average precipitation, shadscale has been found very susceptible to grazing pressure regardless of season (Chambers and Norton 1993). Following fire, grazing exclusion for 2 or more years is beneficial for revegetation of shadscale communities as first year shadscale seedlings lack spines and are highly susceptible to browsing. Spines develop in the second year (Zielinski 1994).
Bud sagebrush is palatable and nutritious forage for domestic sheep in the winter and spring although it is known to cause mouth sores in lambs. Bud sagebrush can be poisonous or fatal to calves when eaten in quantity. Bud sagebrush can be poisonous or fatal to calves when eaten in quantity (Stubbendieck et al. 1992). Bud sagebrush is highly susceptible to effects of browsing. It decreases under browsing due to year-long palatability of its buds and is particularly susceptible to browsing in the spring when it is physiologically most active (Chambers and Norton 1993, Harper et al. 1990). Heavy browsing (>50%) may kill bud sagebrush rapidly (Wood and Brotherson 1986).
Winterfat is an important forage plant for livestock, especially during winter when forage is scarce. Abusive grazing practices have reduced or eliminated winterfat on some areas even though it is fairly resistant to browsing. Effects depend on severity and season of grazing. Winterfat, a highly nutritious winter feed shows similar results to bud sagebrush with significant declines in density with late winter or early spring grazing (Harper et al. 1990). Interestingly the same 54 year study also showed winterfat density decreasing in the ungrazed plots.
Greenmolly provides excellent forage for sheep and cattle, and is often used as a winter forage, when it is high in protein.
Needle and thread also a minor component on these sites, is most commonly found on warm/dry soils (Miller et al. 2013). It is not grazing tolerant and will be one of the first grasses to decrease under heavy grazing pressure (Smoliak et al. 1972, Tueller and Blackburn 1974). Heavy grazing is likely to reduce basal area of these plants (Smoliak et al. 1972). With the reduction in competition from deep rooted perennial bunchgrasses, the rhizomatous galleta grass bluegrass will likely increase (Smoliak et al. 1972).
In summary, overgrazing causes a decrease in Indian ricegrass along with winterfat and bud sagebrush, while shadscale may initially increase. Spring grazing year after year can be detrimental to bud sagebrush and the perennial bunchgrasses. Continued abusive grazing leads to increased bare ground and invasion by annual weeds (e.g., cheatgrass, halogeton, and tansy mustard). Shadscale may become dominant with an annual understory. With further deterioration, shadscale declines, bare ground increases, soil redistribution accelerates and site productivity decreases. On some soils, erosion can result in increased surface salts and development of desert pavement. Reestablishment of perennials is limited in areas of extensive desert pavement. Fire is a very infrequent and patchy event in these salt-desert shrub communities; however, where it has occurred the shrub community is greatly reduced and annual exotic weeds will increase if present. Repeated fire within a 10 to 20 year timeframe has the potential to convert this site to an annual weed dominated system. Knowledge of successful rehabilitation strategies in these droughty plant communities is limited. Cook and Child (1971) found significant reduction in plant cover even after 7 years of rest from heavy (90%) and moderate (60%) spring use. The seed crop may be reduced where grazing is heavy (Bich et al. 1995). Tolerance to grazing increases after May, thus spring deferment may be necessary for stand enhancement (Pearson 1964, Cook and Child 1971); however, utilization of less than 60% is recommended. Adaptive management is required to manage this bunchgrass well.
Stocking rates vary over time depending upon season of use, climate variations, site, and previous and current management goals. A safe starting stocking rate is an estimated stocking rate that is fine-tuned by the client by adaptive management through the year and from year to year.
Wildlife interpretations:
Salt-desert shrub communities provide valuable habitat for a number of species.
Shadscale is a valuable browse species, providing a source of palatable, nutritious forage for a wide variety of wildlife particularly during spring and summer before the hardening of spiny twigs. (Jameson 1952, Welch et al. 1987). It supplies browse, seed, and cover for birds, small mammals, rabbits, deer, and pronghorn antelope.
Shadscale also provides feed for wild ungulates: mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) browse shadscale, especially during winter (Bartmann 1983). Although it is not preferred, shadscale is also browsed in winter by pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) (Beal and Smith 1970). Shadscale habitats throughout northeastern Nevada are important home ranges for small mammals. The chisel-toothed kangaroo rat (Dipodomys microps) feed on shadscale foliage and use shadscale habitats during the spring, summer, and fall. Deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) use shadscale habitats all year (O’farrell and Clark 1986). Shadscale leaves and seeds are preferred forage for jackrabbits (Lepus californicus) (Currie and Goodwin 1966). The Great Basin kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii) also feeds on shadscale foliage (Kenagy 1973).
Several bird species will eat shadscale seeds and use shadscale habitats for cover and nesting sites. The horned lark (Eremophila alpestris) occurs throughout shadscale communities. Although less commonly apparent the Brewer's sparrow (Spizella breweri) and sage thrasher (Oreoscoptes montanus) also occur in shadscale habitat. Other species, observed occasionally throughout breeding season in shadscale habitat include: northern harrier (Circus cyaneus), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) , ferruginos hawk (Buteo regalis), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), American kestrel (Falco sparverius) , prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus), mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia), short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), violet-green swallow (Tachycineta thalassina), cliff swallow (Petrochelidon), barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), common raven (Corvus corax), loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus), vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus), black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza bilineata), and western meadowlark (Sternella neglecta) (Medin 1990).
It should be noted the loss of shadscale and associated shrubs has a negative effect on golden eagle habitat. The golden eagle is listed as a threatened species throughout the United States. Areas of shadscale shrub-steppe provide cover and forage for black-tailed jackrabbits, which are a major food source of golden eagles. Shadscale should be maintained within 1.9 miles of golden eagle nests in order to maintain the species (Kochert et al. 1999).

Reptile and amphibian distribution is not widely studied throughout the Intermountain cold desert shrub region; however, several reptiles and amphibians are recorded to occur throughout Nevada, where shadscale, bud sagebrush, winterfat and other desert shrubs occur (Bernard and Brown 1977). In shadscale habitat specifically, western rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis) and gopher snakes (Pituophis catenifer catenifer) were recorded in a study by Diller and Johnson (1988). Reptile species including: eastern racer (Coluber constrictor), ringneck snake (Diadophis punctatus), night snakes (Hypsiglena torquata), Sonoran mountain kingsnakes (Lampropeltis pyromelana), striped whipsnakes (Masticophis taeniatus), gopher snakes (Pituophis catenifer), long-nosed snakes (Rhinocheilus lecontei), wandering gartersnakes (Thamnophis elegans vagrans), sidewinders (Crotalus cerastes), Great Basin rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus lutosus), Great Basin collared lizard (Crotaphytus bicinctores), long-nosed leopard lizard (Gamelia copeii), short-horned lizard (Phrynosoma douglasii), desert-horned lizard (Phrynosoma platyrhinos), western fence lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis), northern side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana stansburiana), banded gecko (Coleonyx variegatus), desert iguana (Diposaurus dorsalis), chuckwalla (Sauromalus ater), zebra-tailed lizard (Callisaurus draconoides), pigmy horned-lizard (Phrynosoma douglasii), desert night lizard (Xantusia vigilis), whip-tailed lizard (Aspidoscelis tigris tigris) and western skinks (Plestiodon skiltonianus) occur in areas where sagebrush is dominant. Similarly, amphibians such as: western toads, Woodhouse’s toads (Anaxyrus woodhousii), northern leopard frogs (Lithobates pipiens), Columbia spotted frogs (Rana luteiventris), bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), and Great Basin spadefoots (Spea intermontana), California toads (Anaxyrus boreas halophilus), Amargosa toads (Anaxyrus nelsoni), Sonoran toads (Anaxyrus alvarius), red-spotted toads (Bufo punctatus) and mountain toad (Bufo cavifrons), also occur throughout the Great Basin in salt desert shrub communities (Hamilton 2004). Bud sagebrush is palatable, nutritious forage for upland game birds, small game and big game in winter. Bud sagebrush is rated as "regularly, frequently, or moderately taken" by mule deer in Nevada in winter and is utilized by bighorn sheep in summer, but the importance of bud sagebrush in the diet of bighorns is not known. Bud sagebrush comprises 18 – 35% of a pronghorn’s diet during the spring where it is available. Chukar will utilize the leaves and seeds of bud sagebrush.
Greenmolly is an excellent forage for deer.
Winterfat is an important forage plant for wildlife, especially during winter when forage is scarce. Winterfat seeds are eaten by rodents. Winterfat is a staple food for black-tailed jackrabbit. Mule deer and pronghorn antelope browse winterfat. Winterfat is used for cover by rodents. It is potential nesting cover for upland game birds, especially when grasses grow up through its crown.
Indian ricegrass is eaten by pronghorn in "moderate" amounts whenever available. A number of heteromyid rodents inhabiting desert rangelands show preference for seed of Indian ricegrass. Indian ricegrass is an important component of jackrabbit diets in spring and summer. In Nevada, Indian ricegrass may even dominate jackrabbit diets during the spring through early summer months. Indian ricegrass seed provides food for many species of birds. Doves, for example, eat large amounts of shattered Indian ricegrass seed lying on the ground.
Galleta provides moderately palatable forage when actively growing and relatively unpalatable forage during dormant periods. Galleta provides poor cover for most wildlife species.
Sand dropseed provides poor forage for wildlife. Large mammals in general show little use of sand dropseed. Sand dropseed is not preferred by pronghorn, elk, and deer. Small mammals and birds utilize sand dropseed to a greater extent than large mammals.
King's desertgrass is an undesirable forage for wildlife.
Changes in plant community composition could affect the distribution and presence of wildlife species and proper management is important to maintain healthy shadscale communities.

Hydrological functions

Runoff is very low to high. Permeability is slow to very rapid. Rills are none to rare. A few short rills (<1m) can be expected on steeper slopes in areas subjected to summer convection storms or rapid spring snowmelt. These will begin to heal during the next growing season. Water flow patterns are none to rare. A few water flow patterns may be evident in areas subjected to summer convection storms. Where flow patterns are observed, they are short in length (<2m), meandering, and stable. Perennial bunchgrasses (Indian ricegrass) aid in infiltration and reduce runoff. Shrub canopy and associated litter provide some protection from raindrop impact and allow for snow capture on this site.

Recreational uses

Aesthetic value is derived from the diverse floral and faunal composition and the colorful flowering of wild flowers and shrubs during the spring and early summer. This site offers rewarding opportunities to photographers and for nature study. This site has potential for upland and big game hunting.

Other products

Seeds of shadscale were used by Native Americans of Arizona, Utah and Nevada for bread and mush. Indian ricegrass was traditionally eaten by some Native Americans. The Paiutes used seed as a reserve food source. Sand dropseed is an edible grass used by Native Americans.

Other information

Winterfat adapts well to most site conditions, and its extensive root system stabilizes soil. However, winterfat is intolerant of flooding, excess water, and acidic soils. Needleandthread grass is useful for stabilizing eroded or degraded sites. Sand dropseed is recommended as a component of grass seed mixtures for sandy and heavy to semi-sandy soils. Good results are seen reseeding dry low lands receiving less than 9 inches (230mm) of precipitation within rangelands of Nevada.

Type locality

Other references

Akinsoji, A. 1988. Postfire vegetation dynamics in a sagebrush steppe in southeastern Idaho, USA. Vegetatio 78:151-155.

Banner, R. E. 1992. Vegetation Types of Utah. Rangelands 14:109-114.

Bich, B. S., J. L. Butler, and C. A. Schmidt. 1995. Effects of Differential Livestock Use on Key Plant Species and Rodent Populations within Selected Oryzopsis hymenoides/Hilaria jamesii Communities of Glen Canyon National Recreation Area. The Southwestern Naturalist 40:281-287.

Blaisdell, J. P. and R. C. Holmgren. 1984. Managing Intermountain rangelands - salt-desert shrub ranges. General Technical Report INT-163, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT.

Booth, D. T., C. G. Howard, and C. E. Mowry. 2006. 'Nezpar' Indian ricegrass: description, justification for release, and recommendations for use. Rangelands Archives 2:53-54.

Bradley, A. F., N. V. Noste, and W. C. Fischer. 1992. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-287: Fire ecology of forests and woodlands in Utah. . U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT.

Britton, C. M., G. R. McPherson, and F. A. Sneva. 1990. Effects of burning and clipping on five bunchgrasses in eastern Oregon. Western North American Naturalist 50:115-120.

Carlson, J. 1984. Atriplex cultivar development. Pages 176-182 in Proceedings - symposium on the biology of Atriplex and related chenopods Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-172. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Provo, UT.

Caudle, D., J. DiBenedetto, M. Karl, H. Sanchez, and C. Talbot. 2013. Interagency ecological site handbook for rangelands. Available at: http://jornada.nmsu.edu/sites/jornada.nmsu.edu/files/InteragencyEcolSiteHandbook.pdf. Accessed 4 October 2013.

Chambers, J., B. Bradley, C. Brown, C. D’Antonio, M. Germino, J. Grace, S. Hardegree, R. Miller, and D. Pyke. 2013. Resilience to Stress and Disturbance, and Resistance to Bromus tectorum L. Invasion in Cold Desert Shrublands of Western North America. Ecosystems:1-16.

Chambers, J. C. and B. E. Norton. 1993. Effects of grazing and drought on population dynamics of salt desert species on the Desert Experimental Range, Utah. Journal of Arid Environments:261-275.

Cibils, A. F., S. M. David, and D. E. McArthur. 1998. Plant-Herbivore Interactions in Atriplex: Current State of Knowledge. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-14, USDA: FS, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ogden, UT.
Cook, C. W. 1962. An Evaluation of Some Common Factors Affecting Utilization of Desert Range Species. Journal of Range Management 15:333-338.

Cook, C. W. and R. D. Child. 1971. Recovery of Desert Plants in Various States of Vigor. Journal of Range Management 24:339-343.
Crofts, K. and G. Van Epps. 1975. Use of shadscale in revegetation of arid disturbed sites. Pages 151-152 in Wildland shrubs: symposium and workshop proceedings. Brigham Young University, Provo, UT.

Dobrowolski, J. P., M. M. Caldwell, and J. H. Richards. 1990. Basin hydrology and plant root systems. Pages 243-292 Plant Biology of the Basin and Range. Springer.

Eckert, R. E., Jr., F. F. Peterson, and F. L. Emmerich. 1987. A study of factors influencing secondary succession in the sagebrush [Artemisia spp. L.] type. Pages 149-168 in Proceedings: Seed and seedbed ecology of rangeland plants. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultureal Research Service, Tucson, A.Z.

Fernandez, O.A. and M.M. Caldwell. 1975. Phenology and dynamics of root growth of three cool semi-desert shrubs under field conditons. J. of Ecology 63(2):703-714.

Fire Effects Information System (Online; http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/).

Harper, K.T., F.J. Wagstaff and W.P. Clary. 1990. Shrub mortality over a 54-year period in shadscale desert, west-central Utah. Pages 119-126 in Proceedings-Symposium on Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Die-off, and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-276. USDA, Forest Service, Intermoutain Research Station, Ogden, UT.

Hironaka, M. and E. Tisdale. 1973. Growth and development of Sitanion hystrix and Poa sandbergii. Research Memorandum RM 72-24. U.S. International Biological Program, Desert Biome.

Houghton, J.G., C.M. Sakamoto, and R.O. Gifford. 1975. Nevada’s Weather and Climate, Special Publication 2. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada, Reno, NV.

Hutchings, S. S. and G. Stewart. 1953. Increasing forage yields and sheep production on intermountain winter ranges. Circular No. 925. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

Johnson, K. L. 1978. Wyoming shrublands: Proceedings, 7th Wyoming shrub ecology workshop. Page 58. University of Wyoming, Agricultural Extension Service, Rock Spring WY.

Knapp, P. A. 1998. Spatio-temporal patterns of large grassland fires in the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Global Ecology & Biogeography Letters 7:259-272.

Miller, R. F., J. C. Chambers, D. A. Pyke, F. B. Pierson, and C. J. Williams. 2013. A review of fire effects on vegetation and soils in the Great Basin Region: response and ecological site characteristics.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2004. The North American Monsoon. Reports to the Nation. National Weather Service, Climate Prediction Center. Available online: http://www.weather.gov/

Nelson, D.L., D.J. Weber and S.C. Garvin. 1990. The possible role of plant disease in the recent wildland shrub dieoff in Utah. Pages 84-90 in Proceedings-Symposium on Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Die-off, and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-276. USDA, Forest Service, Intermoutain Research Station, Ogden, UT.

Nelson, C.R., B.A. Haws and D.L. Nelson. 1990. Mealybugs and related homoptera of shadscale: Possible agents in the dieoff problem in the intermountain west. Pages 152-165 in Proceedings-Symposium on Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Die-off, and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-276. USDA, Forest Service, Intermoutain Research Station, Ogden, UT.

Pearson, L. 1964. Effect of harvest date on recovery of range grasses and shrubs. Agronomy Journal 56:80-82.

Pearson, L. C. 1965. Primary Production in Grazed and Ungrazed Desert Communities of Eastern Idaho. Ecology 46:278-285.

Peters, E. F. and S. Bunting. 1994. Fire conditions pre- and post-occurrence of annual grasses on the Snake River Plain. Pages 31-36 in Proceedings--Ecology and Management of Annual Rangelands Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Boise, ID.

Quinones, F. A. 1981. Indian ricegrass evaluation and breeding. Bulletin 681. Page 19. New Mexico State University, Agricultural Experiment Station, Las Cruces, NM.

Sanderson, S. C., H. C. Stutz, and E. D. McArthur. 1990. Geographic Differentiation in Atriplex confertifolia. American Journal of Botany 77:490-498.

Smith, S. D. and P. S. Nobel. 1986. Deserts. Pages 13-62 in Photosynthesis in contrasting environments. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Smoliak, S., J. F. Dormaar, and A. Johnston. 1972. Long-Term Grazing Effects on Stipa-Bouteloua Prairie Soils. Journal of Range Management 25:246-250.

Stringham, T.K., P. Novak-Echenique, P. Blackburn, C. Coombs, D. Snyder and A. Wartgow. 2015. Final Report for USDA Ecological Site Description State-and-Transition Models, Major Land Resource Area 28A and 28B Nevada. University of Nevada Reno, Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station Research Report 2015-01. p. 1524.

Stubbendieck, J. L. 1985. Nebraska Range and Pasture Grasses: (including Grass-like Plants). University of Nebraska, Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, Lincoln, NE.

Stubbendieck, J. L., S. L. Hatch, and C. H. Butterfield. 1992. North American range plants. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE.

Tueller, P. T. and W. H. Blackburn. 1974. Condition and Trend of the Big Sagebrush/Needleandthread Habitat Type in Nevada. Journal of Range Management 27:36-40.
USDA-NRCS Plants Database (Online; http://www.plants.usda.gov).

Vallentine, J. F. 1989. Range development and improvements. Academic Press, Inc.
West, N. E. 1994. Effects of fire on salt-desert shrub rangelands.in Proceedings--Ecology and Management of Annual Rangelands, General Technical Report INT-313. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Boise, ID.

Wood, B. W. and J. D. Brotherson. 1986. Ecological adaptation and grazing response of budsage (Artemisia spinescens) Pages 75-92 in Proceedings-- symposium on the biology of Artemisia and Chrysothamnus. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-200. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Provo, UT.

Wright, H. A. 1971. Why Squirreltail Is More Tolerant to Burning than Needle-and-Thread. Journal of Range Management 24:277-284.

Wright, H. A. 1985. Effects of fire on grasses and forbs in sagebrush-grass communities. Pages 12-21 in Rangeland Fire Effects; A Symposium: Boise, ID, USDI-BLM.

Wright, H. A. and J. O. Klemmedson. 1965. Effect of Fire on Bunchgrasses of the Sagebrush-Grass Region in Southern Idaho. Ecology 46:680-688.

Young, J. A. and R. A. Evans. 1977. Squirreltail Seed Germination. Journal of Range Management 30:33-36.

Young, J. A. and F. Tipton. 1990. Invasion of cheatgrass into arid environments of the Lahontan Basin. Pages 37-40 in Proceedings- Symposium on cheatgrass invasion, shrub die-off, and other aspects of shrub biology and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-276. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Las Vegas, NV.

Young, R. P. 1983. Fire as a vegetation management tool in rangelands of the intermountain region. Pages 18-31 in Managing intermountain rangelands - improvement of range and wildlife habitats. USDA, Forest Service.

Zielinski, M. J. 1994. Controlling erosion on lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management, Winnemucca District, Nevada. Pages 143-146 in Proceedings - ecology and management of annual rangelands Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Boise ID.

Contributors

RK
T Stringham
P NovakEchenique