Physiographic features

The Loamy ecological site generally occurs on slopes ranging from near level to moderately steep lands to 30%. Alluvial fans, stream terraces, and hillsides/ridges are identified as the major landforms where this site exists. The site also occurs on relict stream terraces or fan remnants, with minimal or no active soil deposition occurring. Dissected large landforms within this landscape create extents that cross climatic gradients, observed through the variability of plant species from upper to lower extents along a landform.

The complexes of soil components mapped on these landforms are typically separated by chemistry, amount and depth of rock fragments or depth to bedrock (lithic or paralithic). Many of these landforms are erosional remnants and have soils ranging from moderately deep to very deep; and are formed from interbedded sandstone and shales. The variability of soils across the landform is influenced by the geology and its inherent chemistry. This will create pockets of calcareous or saline/sodic soils as well as areas that are not influenced by chemistry. The change in plant communities can be abrupt, but often it is difficult to identify clearly the transition between sites and to distinguish which site is dominant across the landform.

Drainage ways and fan aprons are landforms that occur together and generally contain the loamy ecological site. Fan aprons receive run off moisture from the surrounding uplifts or uplands and that moisture is funneled into channels or drainage ways that dissect the fan apron. Shallow drains or concave areas may express a more robust plant community and could be correlated as an overflow; however, within steeper drainages, the bottoms have drier steps or risers that are presumed to be overflow, but due to down-cutting, lack of water table, flooding, and/or concentrated flows, have no expression of an overflow site (receives extra moisture from overland movement of surface water that encourages basin wildrye, basin big sagebrush and in some areas greasewood).

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Climatic features

Annual precipitation and modeled relative effective annual precipitation ranges from 5 to 9 inches (127 – 229 mm). The normal precipitation pattern shows peaks in May and June and a secondary peak in September. This amounts to about 50% of the mean annual precipitation. Much of the moisture that falls in the latter part of the summer is lost by evaporation and much of the moisture that falls during the winter is lost by sublimation. Average snowfall is about 20 inches annually. Wide fluctuations may occur in yearly precipitation and result in more dry years than those with more than normal precipitation.

Temperatures show a wide range between summer and winter and between daily maximums and minimums, due to the high elevation and dry air, which permits rapid incoming and outgoing radiation. Cold air outbreaks from Canada in winter move rapidly from northwest to southeast and account for extreme minimum temperatures. Chinook winds may occur in winter and bring rapid rises in temperature. Extreme storms may occur during the winter, but most severely affect ranch operations during late winter and spring. High winds are generally blocked from the basin by high mountains, but can occur in conjunction with an occasional thunderstorm. Growth of native cool-season plants begins about April 1st and continues until about July 1st. Cool weather and moisture in September may produce some green up of cool season plants that will continue through late October.

Review of a 30 year trend of data for Average Temperature as well as Average Precipitation, shows there has been a warming trend, but as the last 12 years graphed, the temperatures have swayed high and low, but overall it has maintained a steady trajectory, neither increasing nor decreasing. Where on the moisture side, the trajectory in trend has been a slow decline. The swings of when spring warm up and first frost hit with the decline in average precipitation have produced a drought effect where the moisture is not being received when the plants and ground is able to utilize the moisture. And in some cases, the late precipitation has encouraged the warm season or mat forming species over the cool season bunchgrasses that are the drivers of the natural system. Early frosts, with dry open winters has created a more arid or desert effect on plants resulting in high rates of winter kill, loss of vigor or overall damage to the plant.

For detailed information visit the Natural Resources Conservation Service National Water and Climate Center at http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/. “Riverton” and "Pavillion" are the representative weather stations within LRU C. The following graphs and charts are a collective sample representing the averaged normals and 30 year annual rainfall data for the selected weather stations from 1981 to 2010.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Climate stations used

• (1) RIVERTON [USC00487760], Riverton, WY

• (2) PAVILLION [USC00487115], Pavillion, WY

Influencing water features

The characteristics of these upland soils have no influence from ground water (water table below 60 inches (150 cm)) and have minimal influence from surface water/overland flow. There may be isolated features that are affected by snow pack that persists longer than surrounding areas due to position on the landform (shaded/protected pockets), but is not significant enough to provide the hydrology needed for an overflow site. No streams are classified within this ecological site.

Depth to water table was originally stated to occur below 48 inches (120 cm) of the soil surface, meaning there is no indication of a water table within this depth at any point throughout the calendar year. In the majority of instances of this site, the water table is below 60 inches (150 cm) for the calendar year. This site is also characterized by no additional moisture capture; it occurs with isolated pockets where surface moisture collects briefly creating an overflow site.

Soil features

The soils of this site are moderately deep to very deep (greater than 20 inches (51 cm) to bedrock), moderately well to well drained, and have moderately slow to moderate permeability. The main soil characteristic that influences the plant community is the permeability of the soil, which allows water to infiltrate into the soil profile and become available for plant use. The permeability also influences the soil chemistry by the rate/depth of leaching of salts, calcium carbonate, and other influencing chemistry out of the zone of plant influence. The rate is slower in loamy soils, reducing the movement of chemistry lower in the profile, in comparison to the Sandy ecological site.

The general soil profile has a sandy loam or loam surface over a subsurface with sandy clay loams and clay loams. These soils may have an alluvial layer (gravel or coarse sands) or interbedded sandstone and shales, lower in the profile (below 20 inches (51 cm)). In areas with alluvial parent material, alluvial gravels may be present on the surface and throughout the soil profile up to 15% by volume.

Concentrations of salts and carbonates occur below the depth of plant influence (20 inches (51 cm)). If they are present in the upper 20 inches, they can be finely disseminated or as small masses or soft nodules in low concentrations throughout. The range of values characterizing this site are listed below. As the amount of calcium carbonates or other soluble salts increases beyond the stated ranges (recognized as a diagnostic characteristic in the soil) then they have crossed a threshold beyond a loamy ecological site and will need to be re-correlated to the proper ecological site (Loamy Calcareous or Saline Upland Loamy).

The soils develop a cap or platy surface that resembles a thin vesicular crust that can hinder germination and seedling establishment. Hoof action or other sources of light disturbance can easily break up this crust, allowing seedling establishment and helps incorporate litter matter. The nature of these soils are not susceptible to wind or water erosion, but when disturbed or loosened during high wind or other extenuating circumstance, the soils are more prone to further erosion once the cap has been loosened or with the loss of vegetative cover. The arid climate is noted for high intensity storms, which are part of these extenuating circumstances. The lighter textured surface profile over a noticeably heavier textured subsurface profile has a tendency to alter infiltration and permeability through the profile, encouraging a diverse plant community that makes the site hard to distinguish from its Sandy and Clayey counterparts. The heavier textured soils lower in the profile increases holding capacity reducing the drought stress, while the lighter cap prevents sealing and allows for a higher rate of germination of a variety of species.

Many of the landforms where these soils occur have an alluvial influence leaving a surface layer of gravels and cobbles. Much of this layer is within 10% cover, however some areas do breach into a surface texture modifier of gravelly (having greater than 15% of gravels and a few cobbles). This layer will vary in depth of thickness in the profile, but has minimal influence on the plants.

Major soil series correlated to this site include: Avalon, Emblem, Frisite, Griffy, Lostwells, Rairdent, Teapo, and Youngston. This list of soil series is subject to change upon completion and correlation of the initial soil surveys: WY647 and WY617; as well as revisions to completed soil surveys: WY613, WY713, WY625, and WY677.
Typical Pedon - FRISITE SERIES

TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, mesic Typic Haplargids. The Frisite fine sandy loam series consists of deep, well drained soils on terraces, fan aprons, valley fill and hill backslope positions in the Cool mountain basins and plains in western and central Wyoming. The soils formed in alluvium from mixed sources that are well drained, have a medium runoff potential, and have moderate permeability. The climate is semiarid with cold dry winters and cool moist springs and warm dry summers. The mean annual precipitation is about 7 inches of which about half falls as snow and rain in April, May, and early June. The mean annual is about 46 degrees F, and ranges from 43 to 50 degrees F. The frost-free season is estimated to range from 110 to 130 days depending upon elevation, aspect, and air drainage.

GEOGRAPHIC SETTING: Frisite soils are on relic terraces, fan aprons, valley fill and hill backslope positions. These soils formed in alluvium weathered from preliminary shale and interbedded sandstone but modified by slope alluvium from mixed sources. Slopes are simple and range from 0 to 10 percent. Elevation ranges from 4,800 to 6,300 feet.

A--0 to 3 inches; pale brown (10YR 6/3) fine sandy loam, brown (10YR 5/3) moist; weak fine granular structure; soft, very friable, nonsticky and nonplastic; many very fine, fine, and few medium roots; many very fine and fine vesicular pores; moderately alkaline (pH 8.2); abrupt smooth boundary. (2 to 6 inches thick)
Range of Characteristics: The A horizon has hue of 2.5Y through 7.5YR, value of 5 or 6 dry, 4 or 5 moist, and chroma of 2 through 4. Reaction is mildly or moderately alkaline. The BA or AB horizon has the same morphological properties as defined for color and reaction.

BA--3 to 6 inches; yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) moist; weak medium prismatic structure parting to weak medium subangular blocky; slightly hard, very friable, nonsticky and slightly plastic; few very fine, fine, and medium roots; moderately alkaline (pH 8.2); clear smooth boundary. (2 to 5 inches thick)

Bt--6 to 13 inches; pale brown (10YR 6/3) clay loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) moist; strong medium prismatic structure parting to moderate medium subangular blocky; hard, friable, sticky and plastic; few very fine, fine, and medium roots; continuous thin and few thick clay films on faces of peds; moderately alkaline (pH 8.2); clear smooth boundary. (7 to 16 inches thick)
Range of Characteristics: The Bt horizon has a hue of 2.5Y through 7.5YR, value of 5 or 6 dry, 4 or 5 moist, and chroma of 2 through 4. Texture is loam, clay loam, or sandy clay loam with 18 to 35 percent clay, 20 to 55 percent silt, and 20 to 55 percent sand with more than 15 but less than 35 percent fine sand or coarser. Reaction is moderately or strongly alkaline.

Btk--13 to 16 inches; pale brown (10YR 6/3) clay loam, brown (10YR 5/3) moist; moderate medium prismatic structure parting to moderate medium subangular blocky; hard, friable, sticky and plastic; few very fine, fine, and medium roots; continuous thin clay films on faces of peds; strongly effervescent, carbonates disseminated and as common fine soft masses and seams; moderately alkaline (pH 8.4); gradual wavy boundary. (3 to 6 inches thick)
Range of Characteristics: The Btk horizon has a hue of 2.5Y through 7.5YR, value of 5 or 6 dry, 4 or 5 moist, and chroma of 2 through 4. Texture is loam, clay loam, or sandy clay loam with 18 to 35 percent clay, 20 to 55 percent silt, and 20 to 55 percent sand with more than 15 but less than 35 percent fine sand or coarser. Reaction is moderately or strongly alkaline.

Bk--16 to 41 inches; light gray (10YR 7/2) loam, grayish brown (2.5Y 5/2) moist; massive; hard, friable, sticky and slightly plastic; strongly effervescent, carbonates disseminated and as common fine soft masses and seams; strongly alkaline (pH 8.6); gradual wavy boundary. (14 to 30 inches thick)
Range of Characteristics: The Bk horizon has hue of 2.5Y through 7.5YR, value of 5 through 7 dry, 5 or 6 moist, and chroma of 2 through 4. Texture averages loam but clay loams are common when clay size carbonates are present. Noncarbonate clay ranges from 18 to 30 percent. Calcium carbonate equivalent ranges from 4 to 14 percent. This horizon is not a diagnostic calcic horizon. Reaction is moderately or strongly alkaline.

C-- 41 to 60 inches; light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) moist; massive; slightly hard, very friable, slightly sticky and slightly plastic; slightly effervescent, carbonates disseminated; moderately alkaline (pH 8.2).
Range of Characteristics: The C horizon has hue of 2.5Y through 7.5YR, value of 5 or 6 dry, 4 or 5 moist, and chroma of 2 through 4. Texture is loam, sandy loam, or clay loam. Reaction is moderately or strongly alkaline.

RANGE IN CHARACTERISTICS:
Depth to bedrock is greater than 60 inches.
Depth to the base of the argillic horizon ranges from 15 to 27 inches.
Free carbonates at the surface are common where soils have been influenced by recharge, but these soils may be leached free of carbonates through the argillic horizon.
The mean annual soil temperature ranges from 47 to 51 degrees F.
Rock fragments of the entire soil to 60 inches ranges from 0 to 15 percent rounded pebbles.
EC to a depth of 60 inches ranges from 0 to 2 mmhos.

TYPE LOCATION: Fremont County, Wyoming; about 300 feet west and 500 feet north of the SE corner of sec. 5, T. 34 N., R. 92 W. Series was established in Fremont County, Wyoming, East Part; 1985.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Animal community

Animal Community – Wildlife Interpretations:

1.1 – RhizomatousWheatgrasses/Needleandthread/Wyoming Big Sagebrush (Reference Community): The predominance of grasses in this plant community favors grazers and mixed-feeders, such as bison, elk, and antelope. Suitable thermal and escape cover for deer may be limited due to the low quantities of woody plants. However, topographical variations could provide some escape cover. When found adjacent to sagebrush dominated states (1.2 or 3.1), this plant community provides brood rearing/foraging areas for sage grouse, as well as lek sites. The mosaic pattern of varying density of sagebrush in a smaller scale, provides cover and line of site to forage and yet escape quickly when predators approach. Other birds that would frequent this plant community include western meadowlarks, horned larks, and golden eagles. Many grassland obligate small mammals would occur here.

1.2 – Perennial Native Grasses/Wyoming Big Sagebrush (At-Risk Community): The predominance of grasses in this plant community favors grazers and mixed-feeders, such as bison, elk, and antelope. Suitable thermal and escape cover for deer may be limited due to the low quantities of woody plants. However, topographical variations could provide some escape cover. This plant community provides brood rearing/foraging areas for sage grouse, as well as lek sites. The mosaic pattern of varying density of sagebrush in a smaller scale, provides cover and line of site to forage and yet escape quickly when predators approach. Other birds that would frequent this plant community include western meadowlarks, horned larks, and golden eagles. Many grassland obligate small mammals would occur here.

2.1 - Wyoming Big Sagebrush/Bare Ground Plant Community: This plant community can provide important winter foraging for elk, mule deer and antelope, as sagebrush can approach 15% protein and 40-60% digestibility during that time. This community provides excellent escape and thermal cover for large ungulates, as well as nesting habitat for sage grouse.

3.1 - Sod-formers/Wyoming Big Sagebrush Plant Community: This community provides limited foraging for antelope and other grazers. They may be used as a foraging site by sage grouse where reference state community phases are limited. Generally, these are not target plant communities for wildlife habitat management.

3.2 - Sod-formers/Cactus Plant Community: This community provides limited foraging for antelope and other grazers. They may be used as a foraging site by sage grouse if proximal to woody cover and if the Reference Plant Community or the rhizomatous wheatgrasses/Perennial Grasses/Sod- formers/Wyoming Big Sagebrush Plant Community are limited. Generally, these are not target plant communities for wildlife habitat management.

4.1- Native Grasses/Invasive Species/Wyoming Big Sagebrush Plant Community: The retained combination of sagebrush and the added diversity with the invasive grasses and/or forbs provide an extended plant community for wildlife. The similarities to Community Phase 1.2 (Perennial Native Grasses/Wyoming Big Sagebrush) are to some extent enhanced for some species with the added forage provided by the invasive species. But as the invasive species increase, decreasing the desirable species, the wildlife species benefits are decreased as well.

4.2- Invasive Species/Wyoming Big Sagebrush Plant Community: Limited nesting and cover is provided by the existing overstory cover of the Wyoming big sagebrush.

5.1 - Invaded/Annual Grasses Plant Community: Early spring and fall green up of Cheatgrass provides foraging opportunities for many of our grazers and mixed feeders.

6.1 - Disturbed/Degraded Lands Plant Community and 6.2 - Restored/Reclaimed Lands Plant Community: The variability of this site prevents a detailed review of wildlife benefits. However, many of the introduced grasses, forbs and shrubs can provide adequate cover, feed and nesting sites for those wildlife species that would have selected the site prior to disturbance. Limitations and enhancements need to be considered by specific locations.

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations:

The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season-long grazing with normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. Under more intensive grazing management, improved harvest efficiencies can result in an increased carrying capacity. If distribution problems occur, stocking rates must be reduced to maintain plant health and vigor.

Plant Community Production Carrying Capacity*

The carrying capacity is calculated as the production (normal year) X .25 harvest efficiency factor / 912.5 # / AUM to calculate the AUM's/Acre.
Plant Community Description/Title Lbs./Acre AUM/Acre* Acre/AUM
Below Ave. Normal Above Ave.
1.1 Rhizomatous Wheatgrasses/Wyoming Big Sagebrush 225 400 600 0.11 9.09
1.2 Perennial Native Grasses/Wyoming Big Sagebrush 180 350 620 0.10 10.0
2.1 Wyoming Big Sagebrush/Bare Ground 100 250 400 0.07 14.29
3.1 Sod-formers/Wyoming Big Sagebrush 60 175 350 0.05 20.0
3.2 Sod-formers/Cactus 55 175 320 0.04 25.0
4.1 Native/Invasive/Wyoming Big Sagebrush ** ** ** ** **
4.2 Invasives/Wyoming Big Sagebrush ** ** ** ** **
5.1 Invasives ** ** ** ** **
6.1 Disturbed/Degraded ** ** ** ** **
6.2 Restored/Reclaimed ** ** ** ** **

* - Carrying Capacity is figured for continuous, season-long grazing by cattle under average growing conditions.
** - Sufficient data for invaded and reclaimed communities has not be collected or evaluated, at this time, so no projection of a stocking rate recommendation or production range will be established at this time.

Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock use needs to be supplemented with protein because the quality does not meet minimum livestock requirements.

Distance to water, shrub density, and slope can affect carrying capacity (grazing capacity) within a management unit. Adjustments should be made for the area that is considered necessary for reduction of animal numbers. For example, 30% of a management unit may have 25% slopes and distances of greater than one mile from water; therefore, the adjustment is only calculated for 30% of the unit (i.e. 50% reduction on 30% of the management unit).

Fencing, slope length, management, access, terrain, kind and class of livestock, and breeds are all factors that can increase or decrease the percent of graze-able acres within a management unit. Adjustments should be made that incorporate these factors when calculating stocking rates.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B and C, with localized areas in hydrologic group D. Infiltration ranges from moderately slow to moderate. Runoff potential for this site varies from low to moderate depending on soil hydrologic group and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75% ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where short-grasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Areas where ground cover is less than 50% have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Part 630, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for detailed hydrology information).

Rills and gullies should not typically be present. Water flow patterns should be barely distinguishable if at all present. Pedestals are only slightly present in association with bunchgrasses. Litter typically falls in place, and signs of movement are not common. Chemical and physical crusts are rare to non- existent. Cryptogrammic crusts are present, but only cover 1-2% of the soil surface.

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting opportunities for upland game species. The wide varieties of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors. Outside of plants, the extent offers a variety of culture resources to view on the landscape based on the location of many of these sites on higher ground on the benches and fans which also provides a rich source of geology for exploration. The extent of this ecological site is found within the Boysen State Park and the Wind River Indian Reservation. These entities have served to protect and provide cultural significance to this ecological site. This ecological site has minimal limitations when associated with roadways and trails, and provides a sound base for travel and camping in relation to erosion potential and functionality.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are present on the site.

Other products

Herbs: The forb species of the Loamy Ecological site have medicinal characteristics and have been used by the Native Americans in this area and more recently by the naturopathic profession.

Ornamental Species: The forbs commonly found as well as the shrub component of these communities have been used in landscaping and xeriscaping.

Inventory data references

Information presented in the original site description was derived from NRCS inventory data. Field observations from range trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing the original site include: Chris Krassin, Range Management Specialist, NRCS and Everet Bainter, Range Management Specialist. Other sources used as references include USDA NRCS Water and Climate Center, USDA NRCS National Range and Pasture Handbook, USDI and USDA Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health Version 3, and USDA NRCS Soil Surveys from various counties.

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS inventory data, Field observations from range trained personnel, and the existing range site descriptions. Those involved in developing the Loamy range site include: Chris Krassin, Range Management Specialist, NRCS and Everet Bainter, Range Management Specialist.

Those involved in the development of the new concept for Sandy Ecological site include: Jim Haverkamp, Area Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Mandi Hirsch, Range Management Specialist/Sage Grouse Coordinater, Popo Agie Conservation District; John Likins, Range Management Specialist, Retired USDI-BLM; Daniel Wood, MLRA Soil Survey Leader, NRCS; Jane Karinen, Soil Data Quality Specialist, NRCS; and Marji Patz, Ecological Site Specialist, NRCS.

Quality control and quality assurance completed by: John Hartung, Wyoming State Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS; Scott Woodall, Regional Quality Assurance Ecological Site Specialist, NRCS.

Inventory Data References:
Ocular field estimations observed by trained personnel were completed at each site. Then sites were selected where a 100 foot tape was stretched and the following sample procedures were completed by inventory staff. For full sampling protocol and guidelines with forms please refer to the Wyoming ESI Operating Procedures, compiled in 2012 for the Powell and Rock Springs Soil Survey Office, USDA-NRCS.
• Double Sampling Production Data (9.6 hoop used to estimate 10 points, clipped a minimum of 3 of these estimated points, with two 21 foot X 21 foot square extended shrub plots).
• Line Point Intercept (over story and understory captured with soil cover). Height of herbaceous and woody cover is collected every three feet along established transect.)
• Continuous Line Intercept (Woody Canopy Cover, with minimum gap of 0.2 of a foot for all woody species and succulents. Intercept height collected at each measurement.),
• Gap Intercept (Basal Gap measured with a minimum gap requirement of 0.7 foot.),
• Sample Point (10 – 1 meter square point photographs taken at set distances on transect. Read using the sample point computer program established by the High Plains Agricultural Research Center, WY).
• Soil Stability (Slake Test – surface and subsurface samples collected and processed according to the soil stability guidelines provided by the Jornada Research Center, NM.)

Other references

Baker, William L. 2006. Fire and Restoration of Sagebrush Ecosystems. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34(1): 177-185.

Bestelmeyer, B., and J. R. Brown. 2005. State-and-transition models 101: a fresh look at vegetation change. The Quivira Coalition Newsletter, Vol. 7, No. 3.

Bestelmeyer, B., J. R. Brown, K. M. Havstad, B. Alexander, G. Chavez, J. E. Herrick. 2003. Development and use of state and transition models for rangelands. Journal of Range Management 56(2):114-126.

Bestelmeyer, B., J. E. Herrick, J. R. Brown, D. A. Trujillo, and K. M. Havstad. 2004. Land management in the American Southwest: a state-and-transition approach to ecosystem complexity. Environmental Management 34(1):38-51.

Herrick, J. E., J. W. Van Zee, K. M. Havstad, L. M. Burkett, and W. G. Whitford. 2005. Monitoring manual for grassland, shrubland and savanna Ecosystems. Volume I Quick Start. USDA - ARS Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, New Mexico.

Herrick, J. E., J. W. Van Zee, K. M. Havstad, L. M. Burkett, and W. G. Whitford. 2005. Monitoring manual for grassland, shrubland and savanna Ecosystems. Volume II: Design, supplementary methods and interpretation. USDA - ARS Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, New Mexico.

NRCS. 2014. (electronic) National Water and Climate Center. Available online at http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/

NRCS. 2014. (electronic) Field Office Technical Guide. Available online at http://efotg.nrcs.usda.gov/efotg_locator.aspx?map=WY NRCS. 2009. Plant Guide: Cheatgrass. Prepared by Skinner et al., National Plant Data Center.

Pellant, M., P. Shaver, D. A. Pyke, and J. E. Herrick. 2005. Interpreting indicators of rangeland health. Version 4. Technical Reference 1734-6. USDI-BLM. Ricketts, M. J., R. S. Noggles, and B. Landgraf-Gibbons. 2004. Pryor Mountain Wild Horse Range Survey and Assessment. USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Schoeneberger, P. J., D. A. Wysocki, E. C. Benham, and Soil Survey Staff. 2012. Field book for describing and sampling soils, Version 3.0. Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/fieldbook/)

Stringham, T. K. and W. C. Krueger. 2001. States, transitions, and thresholds: Further refinement for rangeland applications. Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University. Special Report 1024.

Stringham, T. K., W. C. Kreuger, and P. L Shaver. 2003. State and transition modeling: an ecological process approach. Journal of Range Management 56(2):106-113.

United States Department of Agriculture. Soil Survey Division Staff. 1993. Soil Survey Manual, United States Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 18, Chapter 3: Examination and Description of Soils. Pg.192-196.

USDA, NRCS. 1997. National Range and Pasture Handbook. (http://www.glti.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/publications/nrph.html)

Trlica, M. J. 1999. Grass growth and response to grazing. Colorado State University. Cooperative Extension. Range. Natural Resource Series. No. 6.108.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA/NRCS). 2007. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA/NRCS), Soil Survey Staff. 2010. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, Eleventh Edition, 2010.

USDA/NRCS Soil survey manuals for appropriate counties within MLRA 32X.
Western Regional Climate Center. (2014) (electronic) Station Metadata. Available online at: http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/summary/climsmwy.html.

Contributors

Marji Patz

Approval

Scott Woodall, 2/22/2019