Physiographic features

This site occurs on areas that receive additional water as runoff from adjacent slopes or as overflow of rivers and intermittent streams. It typically occurs on concave swales, foot slopes, and base slopes of glaciated uplands – till plains, escarpments, and glacial lake plains; areas on flood plain steps and low terraces of rivers and streams are currently included (see Site Development and Testing Plan). On ground moraines the parent material is either fine-loamy or coarse-loamy till. On lake plains the parent material is either fine-silty, coarse-silty, or coarse-loamy glaciolacustrine sediments. Some areas have a mantle of moderately coarse- textured eolian deposits over the till or glaciolacustrine materials. On flood plain steps and terraces, the parent material is fine-silty, fine-loamy, or coarse-loamy alluvium. Slopes range from 0 to 6 percent.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Climatic features

MLRA 55B is considered to have a continental climate – cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature are characteristic of the MLRA. The climate is the result of this MLRA’s location in the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the northern Great Plains. The air masses move unobstructed across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.

Annual precipitation ranges from 18 to 23 inches per year. The normal average annual temperature is about 41.5° F. January is the coldest month with average low temperature ranging from about -4.3° F (Petersburg, ND) to about 2.5° F (Mellette, SD). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 79° F (Petersburg, ND) to about 84° F (Mellette, SD). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 64° F. This large annual range attests to the continental nature of this MLRA's climate. Winds average about 11 miles per hour annually, ranging from about 13 miles per hour during the spring to about 10 miles per hour during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime and strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 miles per hour.

Growth of native cool-season plants begins in late March and continues to early to mid-July. Native warm- season plants begin growth in mid-May and continue to the end of August. Greening up of cool-season plants can occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Climate stations used

• (1) BUTTE 5SE [USC00321225], Butte, ND

• (2) CARRINGTON [USC00321360], Carrington, ND

• (3) FORMAN 5 SSE [USC00323117], Forman, ND

• (4) HARVEY 4NE [USC00324013], Harvey, ND

• (5) LA MOURE [USC00324937], Lamoure, ND

• (6) MELLETTE 4 W [USC00395456], Northville, SD

• (7) PETERSBURG 2 N [USC00327027], Petersburg, ND

• (8) COLUMBIA 8 N [USC00391873], Columbia, SD

Influencing water features

This site receives significant additional water as run-on from adjacent slopes or as overflow from rivers, streams, and intermittent drainageways. Most of the additional water occurs during the months of April through June or after heavy summer thunderstorms. Ponding is typically none; however, after a heavy rainstorm, very brief ponding may occur in upland swales. Some soils in this site have a seasonal high-water table shallower than 3 feet very early in the growing season; but this is not a major influence on the soil/water/plant relationship throughout the growing season. Depth to the water table typically is deeper than 4 feet during most of the growing season. Surface infiltration is moderately slow to moderately rapid. Permeability through the profile, typically, ranges from moderately slow to moderately rapid; but in the substratum of some soils, it may be slow. Water loss is through evapotranspiration and percolation below the root zone.

Soil features

Soils associated with Loamy Overflow ecological site are in the Mollisol and Entisol orders. The Mollisols are classified further as Cumulic Hapludolls, Fluventic Hapludolls, Pachic Argiudolls, Pachic Hapludolls, Aquic Pachic Hapludolls, and Aquic Hapludolls. The Entisols are classified further as Mollic Udifluvents. These soils were developed under prairie vegetation. Typically, they formed in till, colluvium from till, glaciolacustrine sediments, alluvium, or coarse-loamy (fine sandy loam) eolian deposits over till or glaciolacustrine sediments.

The common feature of soils in this site are the moderately fine to moderately coarse textures (soil forms a ribbon 1 to 2 inches long) to a depth of more than 40 inches and the run-on or frequently flooded landscape position. The soils are very deep. They are well drained or moderately well drained; redoximorphic features, where present, are deeper than 3 feet. Surface and subsoil textures include loam, clay loam, silt loam, silty clay loam, and fine sandy loam and may be stratified in some soils.

Soil salinity typically is none or very slight (E.C. <4 dS/m) to a depth of more than 2 feet; below this it may increase to moderate (E.C. 8 - <16 dS/m) in some soils. Sodicity is none or low (SAR <3) to a depth of more than 30 inches. Soil reaction is slightly acid to slightly alkaline (pH 6.1 to 7.8) in the surface layer and upper part of the subsoil. A layer of calcium carbonate accumulation commonly occurs in the lower subsoil. Where present, it is below a depth of 16 inches and typically is deeper than 20 inches. Calcium carbonate content above that layer is none or low. In the layer of accumulation, it can be as high as 30 percent.

The soil surface is stable and intact. These soils are mainly susceptible to water erosion. The hazard of water erosion increases where vegetative cover is not adequate. Loss of the soil surface layer can result in a shift in species composition and/or production.

Major soil series correlated to the Loamy Overflow site are Aastad, Darnen, Embden, Emrick, Fairdale, Gardena, Hamlet, La Prairie, LaDelle, Overly, Svea, Swenoda, Velva (udic taxadjunct), and Walsh.

Access Web Soil Survey ( https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx ) for specific local soils information.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Animal community

Animal Community – Wildlife Interpretations

Landscape

The MLRA 55B landscape is characterized by mostly nearly level to gently rolling till plains with some steep slopes adjacent to streams and many poorly defined drainage channels. The continental drainage divide occurs in the east-central part of the MLRA. The MLRA is located within the Prairie Pothole Region with temporary, seasonal, and semi-permanent wetlands throughout the MLRA. The MLRA includes areas of kettle holes, kames, and moraines. MLRA 55B is considered to have a continental climate with cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature are common and characteristic of MLRA 55B. This area supports mid- to tall-grass prairie vegetation with quaking aspen, American elm, bur oak, green ash, and willow species growing along the riparian zones of river systems found throughout the MLRA. Complex, intermingled ecological sites create diverse grass/shrub land habitats interspersed with varying densities of linear, slope, depressional, and in-stream wetlands associated with headwater streams and tributaries of the James, Pipestem, Maple, Goose, Sheyenne, Wild Rice, and Elm Rivers. MLRA 55B is located within North and South Dakota and within the boundaries of the Prairie Pothole Region.

Three Hydrologic Unit Areas make up this MLRA. Approximately 6% drains into the Mouse River into MLRA 55A, with the balance split between the James and Sheyenne Rivers.

By the mid-19th century the over 76% of the MLRA had been converted from mid- to tall-grass prairie to annual crop production. To alleviate crop production loss from wetlands and overland flow, a system of shallow surface ditches, judicial ditches, and road ditches removes surface water in spring and during high rainfall events. Tile drainage systems have been or are being installed extensively throughout MLRA 55B for sub-surface field drainage to enhance annual crop production.

Historic Communities/Conditions within MLRA 55B:

The northern tall- and mixed-grass prairie were disturbance-driven ecosystems with fire, herbivory, and climate functions as the primary ecological drivers - either singly or often in combination. American bison roamed MLRA 55B wintering along the Mouse River in MLRA 55A and migrating through MLRA 55B and into MLRA 56. Many species of grassland birds, small mammals, insects, reptiles, amphibians, elk, moose, pronghorn, and large herds of American bison were historically among the inhabitants adapted to this region. Roaming herbivores, as well as several small mammals and insect species, were the primary consumers linking the grassland resources to large predators such as the wolf, American black bear, grizzly bear, and smaller carnivores such as the coyote, bobcat, red fox, and raptors. Extirpated species include free-ranging American bison and gray wolf (breeding). Extinct is the Rocky Mountain locust.

Present Communities/Conditions within MLRA 55B:

This area supports natural prairie vegetation characterized by western wheatgrass, green needlegrass, needle and thread, and blue grama. Little bluestem is an important species on the more sloping and shallower soils. Prairie cordgrass, northern reedgrass, big bluestem, and wheat sedge (slough sedge) are important species on wet soils. Western snowberry, leadplant, and prairie rose are commonly interspersed throughout the area.

Over 80% of MLRA 55B has been converted to annual crop production. These influences fragmented the landscape, reduced or eliminated ecological drivers (fire), and introduced exotic plant species including smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, and leafy spurge; this further impacted plant and animal communities. The loss of the bison and fire as primary ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native plant communities and the associated wildlife, moving towards a less diverse and more homogeneous landscape. Annual cropping is the main factor contributing to habitat fragmentation, reducing habitat quality for area-sensitive species.

Hydrological manipulation is extensive throughout the MLRA. Extensive wetland and subsurface tile drainage have taken place. Straightened segments of ephemeral and intermittent tributary streams of the James, Wild Rice, and Sheyenne River have reduced sinuosity, created oxbows, and enabled the conversion of riparian ecological sites to annual crop production. These anthropogenic impacts have reduced flood water detention and retention on the landscape. The results have been increasing storm water runoff sediment and nutrient loading to the James and Sheyenne Rivers and their tributaries (along with lakes and reservoirs within the MLRA). Large dams on the James, Pipestem and Sheyenne rivers, along with installation of instream structures have reduced aquatic species movement within the MLRA.

National wildlife refuges, waterfowl production areas, state wildlife management areas, and North and South Dakota Department of Trust Lands provide herbaceous and woody cover for wildlife. In addition, the United States Army Corps of Engineers and the United States Bureau of Reclamation manage three man-made reservoirs - Jamestown Reservoir, Pipestem Reservoir, and Lake Ashtabula for flood control, also providing fish habitat and adjacent uplands for wildlife cover. Lonetree Wildlife Management Area (WMA) is the largest state managed wildlife area covering 32,800 acres. Arrowwood National Wildlife Refuge is the largest refuge consisting of 16,000 acres.

Some characteristic wildlife species in this area are:

Birds: Common goldeye, bufflehead, broad-winged hawk, alder flycatcher, mourning warbler, mallard, blue- winged teal, red-tailed hawk, American kestrel, killdeer, eastern and western kingbird, western meadowlark, American crow, common yellowthroat, clay-colored sparrow, vesper sparrow, red-necked grebe, Savannah sparrow, downy and hairy woodpeckers, black-capped chickadee, white-breasted nuthatch, and brown-headed cowbird.

Mammals: Northern short-tailed shrew, white-tailed jackrabbit, Franklin’s ground squirrel, thirteen-lined ground squirrel, northern pocket gopher, plains pocket gopher, western harvest mouse, deer mouse, meadow vole, meadow jumping mouse, western jumping mouse, coyote, red fox, racoon, American badger, striped skunk, white-tailed deer, elk, moose, beaver, muskrat, mink, weasel, woodchuck, and red, eastern gray and fox squirrels.

Reptiles/Amphibians: American toad, Great Plains toad, northern leopard frog, chorus frog, tiger salamander, plains garter snake, smooth green snake, wood frog, and common garter snake.

Presence of wildlife species is often determined by ecological site characteristics including grass and forb species, tree and shrub species, hydrology, aspect, and other associated ecological sites. The home ranges of a majority of species are usually larger than one ecological site or are dependent upon more than one ecological site for annual life requisites. Ecological sites offer different habitat elements as the annual life requisites change. Habitat improvement and creation must be conducted within the mobility limits of a known population for the species.

Insects play an important role in providing ecological services for plant community development. Insects that are scavengers or aid in decomposition provide the food chain baseline sustaining the carnivorous insects feeding upon them. Many insects provide the ecological services necessary for pollination, keeping plant communities healthy and productive. Insects provide a protein food source for numerous species including grassland-nesting birds, woodpeckers, woodland edge and interior species, and their young. Extensive use of insecticides for specialty crops such as soybeans, corn, and other crops has greatly reduced insects within this MLRA.

Species of Concern within MLRA 55B:

The following is a list of species considered “species of conservation priority” in the North Dakota State Wildlife Action Plan (2015) and South Dakota State Wildlife Action Plan (2014); and species listed as “threatened, endangered, or petitioned” under the Endangered Species Act within MLRA 55B at the time this section was developed:

Invertebrates: Dakota skipper, Dakota stonefly, Iowa skipper, monarch butterfly, northern sandy tiger beetle, Ottoe skipper, Poweshiek skipperling, regal fritillary, yellow-banded bumble bee, and western bumble bee.

Birds: America avocet, American bittern, American kestrel, American white pelican, Baird’s sparrow, bald eagle, black-billed cuckoo, black tern, bobolink, burrowing owl, canvasback, chestnut-collared longspur, Dickcissel, ferruginous hawk, Franklin’s gull, grasshopper sparrow, horned grebe, lark bunting, LeConte’s sparrow, lesser scaup, marbled godwit, Nelson’s sparrow, northern goshawk, northern harrier, northern pintail, osprey (migration), peregrine falcon (migration), piping plover (migration), red knot (migration), sharp-tailed grouse, short-eared owl, Swainson’s hawk, upland sandpiper, western meadowlark, willet, Wilson’s phalarope, whooping crane (migration), and yellow rail.

Mammals: Arctic shrew, big and little brown bats, Franklin’s ground squirrel, northern river otter, plains pocket mouse, pygmy shrew, Richardson’s ground squirrel, and silver-haired bat.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Canadian toad, plains hognose snake, smooth green snake, and snapping turtle.

Fish and Mussels: Black sandshell, blacknose shiner, Carmine shiner, creek heelsplitter, creeper, deertoe, fragile papershell, mapleleaf, northern pearl dace, northern redbelly dace, pink heelsplitter, threeridge, trout-perch, yellow sandshell, and Wabash pigtoe.

Grassland Management for Wildlife in MLRA 55B

Management activities within the community phase pathways impact wildlife but are essential for maintenance of healthy grassland ecosystems. Community phase, transitional, and restoration pathways are keys to long-term management within each State and between States. Timing, intensity, and frequency of these inputs can have dramatic positive or negative effects on local wildlife species. Ranchers and other land managers must always consider the long-term beneficial management effects of grassland and woodland resources in comparison to typically short-term negative effects to the habitats of individual species.

Ecological sites occur as intermingled complexes on the landscape with gradual or sometimes abrupt transitions. Rarely do ecological sites exist in large enough acreage to manage independently. Ecological sites supporting a dominance of herbaceous vegetation (Loamy/Sandy) can be located adjacent to ecological sites that support medium to tall shrubs (Invaded Wooded States). Conversely, ecological sites that are dominated by short- to mid-statured grasses (Claypan) can be adjacent to sites with bare soil only supporting minor amounts of short grasses and forbs (Thin Claypan).

Management of these complex ecological sites can provide a heterogeneous or a homogenous landscape. Grassland bird use reduces as the plant community transitions to a homogenous state. Managers must recognize ecological sites and the complexes in which they occur to properly manage the landscape. A management regime for one ecological site may negatively impact an adjacent site; e.g., alteration of a grazing regime within the Woody Dominated State of Loamy ecological site to encourage understory growth may encourage exotic cool-season grasses to increase or dominate an adjacent ecological site.

Life requisites and habitat deficiencies are determined for targeted species. Deficiencies need to be addressed along community phase, transitional, and restoration pathways as presented in specific state-and-transition models. Ecological sites should be managed and restored within the site’s capabilities to provide sustainable habitat for targeted species or species guilds. Managers also need to consider vegetative associations provided by adjacent/intermingled ecological sites for species with home ranges or life requisites that may not be provided by one ecological site.

Grassland-nesting birds use various grass heights for breeding, nesting, foraging, or winter habitat. While most species use varying heights, many have a preferred vegetative stature height or sensitivity to woody vegetation. Understanding the sensitivity of grassland species to woody vegetation and preferred vegetative structure enables managers to determine which grassland-nesting bird species avoid grassland habitats adjacent to woody dominated plant community phases or states. The following chart provides sensitivity to woody vegetation and preferred vegetative stature heights.

To see the chart please follow the hyperlink: https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov/references/public/ND/55B_Loamy_Overflow_Narrative_FINAL_Ref_FSG.pdf

Loamy Overflow Wildlife Habitat Interpretation:

Loamy Overflow ecological sites have no restrictions in the soil profile. This complex of ecological sites provides habitat for many edge-sensitive grassland bird species. Loamy Overflow habitat features support nesting and foraging grassland birds but may be too dense and tall for sharp-tailed grouse leks. Associated ecological sites include Limy Subirrigated, Sandy, Loamy, Subirrigated, Thin Loamy, and Wet Meadow.

Loamy Overflow ecological sites may be found in five plant community states (1.0 Reference State, 2.0 Native/Invaded State, 3.0 Invaded State, 4.0 Go-Back State, and 5.0 Invaded Wooded State). Multiple plant community phases exist within all states. These states occur primarily in response to grazing, drought, and non-use. Secondary influences include fire and anthropogenic disturbances.

Because there is no known restoration pathway from 2.0 Native/Invaded State to 1.0 Reference State, it is important to intensively manage using tools within these state’s community phase pathways to prevent further plant community degradation along either the T1A to 2.0 Native/Invaded or T2A transitional pathway to 3.0 Invaded State. Native grassland associated wildlife generally benefit from a heterogeneous grassland found in community phases found in States 1.0 and 2.0 that include diverse grass and forb species with varying structure and density. Conversion to a 5.0 Invaded Wooded States (along transitional pathways T2B, and T3A) generally benefits wildlife species that can tolerate (or require) woody habitat within State 5.0.

As plant communities degrade within 2.0 Native/Invaded State and transition to 3.0 Invaded State cool-season, short-statured, exotic grasses increase. This invasion results in reduced structure, increased plant community homogeneity, and reduced insect populations - resulting in a reduction of breeding, nesting, foraging, or winter habitat for grassland birds. When adjacent/intermingled, ecological sites undergo the same transition, the result can be an expansive, homogenous landscape.

Success along restoration pathway R3A from 3.0 Native State to 2.0 Native/Invaded State is very difficult and is dependent upon presence of a remnant native grass population or successful native range seeding. Plant community phases (within the 3.0 Native State) show dramatic increased homogeneity of exotic cool-season grasses and further reduction in native forbs. Reduced forb diversity limits insect populations, negatively affecting grassland nesting bird foraging opportunities.

However, western snowberry, plum, chokecherry and prairie rose shrubs can increase in 3.0 Invaded State which negatively impacts bird species sensitive to woody vegetation invasion but, at the same time, provides habitat for beneficial pollinating insects. Increased exotic-grass litter can limit access to bare ground by nesting insects. A homogenous grassland landscape does not provide quality escape or winter cover. As a result, many grassland nesting bird species are not able to meet life requisites within 3.0 Invaded State.

Management along community phase, transition or restoration pathways should focus upon attainable changes. Short- and long-term monetary costs must be evaluated against short- and long-term ecological services in creating and maintaining habitat of enough quality to support a sustainable population.

1.0 Reference State

Community Phase 1.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass-Western Wheatgrass: This plant community offers quality wildlife habitat; every effort should be made to maintain this ecological site within this community phase. This phase retains high functionality through continued maintenance including prescribed grazing (with adequate recovery period), as well as prescribed fire. Predominance of grass species in this community favors grazers and mixed-feeders (animals selecting grasses as well as forbs and shrubs). The structural diversity provides habitat for a wide array of migratory and resident birds.

Invertebrates: Insects play a role in maintaining the forb community and provide a forage base for grassland birds, reptiles, and rodents. Ecological services, historically provided by bison, are simulated by domestic livestock. These services include putting plant material and dung in contact with mineral soil to be used by low trophic level consumers (such as invertebrate decomposers, scavengers, shredders, predators, herbivores, dung beetles, and fungal-feeders).

Dakota skippers may use this site since bluestems, prairie dropseed, and wood lily are found on this site. Regal fritillary habitat is limited due to Nuttall's violet and prairie violets being uncommon. Monarch butterfly may use flowering forbs; however, few milkweed species are found on this site to support breeding and larvae development. The ecological site does not provide habitat for the northern sandy tiger beetle which prefers dry, sandy dunes or sandy areas away from water. This plant community provides habitat for the Ottoe Skipper preferring mid to tall-statured grasses. Bumblebees and other native bees utilize a wide variety of forbs, but bare ground may be limited for ground nesting bees. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods, as well as prescribed fire, to maintain the 1.1 phase will have long term positive effects on ground dwelling insects.

Birds: This plant community provides quality nesting, foraging, and escape habitats favored by mid- to tall- grass nesting birds. In years with reduced precipitation or drought, nesting recruitment may be compromised. Plant structure is too dense or tall for species using short-grass habitats; however, it may be used during periods of drought or management such as rotational grazing or fire (resulting in defoliation) along community phase pathway 1.1A. This plant community does not provide suitable areas for sharp-tailed grouse leks but does provide nesting and brood-rearing habitat. Diverse prey populations provide good hunting opportunity for grassland raptors. Many passerine species utilize MLRA 55B as a major migratory travel corridor. Grassland species sensitive to woody associations during nesting and brooding may utilize the woodier fragmented sites.

Mammals: The diversity of grasses and forbs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores. Moderate to tall stature provides suitable food, thermal, protective, and escape cover for small and large herbivores.

Amphibians/Reptiles: This ecological site and associated plant communities provide habitat for smooth green snakes. This ecological site can provide habitat for the northern leopard frog and Canadian toad if freshwater habitats (such as wetlands, streams, or lakes) are adjacent or near the site.

Fish and Mussels: These ecological sites can be located near or adjacent to streams, rivers, or water bodies. Loamy Overflow sites receive run-on hydrology from adjacent ecological sites and provide hydrology to neighboring run-on sites, having a direct effect on aquatic species in streams and/or tributaries. Optimum hydrological function and nutrient cycling limit potential for sediment yield and nutrient loading to the adjacent aquatic ecosystems from Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 1.2 Blue Grama-Western Wheatgrass-Big Bluestem: This plant community phase occurs from heavy grazing with or without drought. The tall, warm-season component is reduced in vigor and replaced by cool-season grasses with increases in western yarrow, goldenrods, and western ragweed.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, the increase of forb species, such as western yarrow and western ragweed, reduce nectar and pollen availability for pollinating insects.

Birds: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, the increase of cool- season shorter statured-grasses and the decrease in tall warm-season grasses favors grassland- nesting birds species preferring mid-statured vegetation.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, the loss in the tall warm-season grass component reduces loafing and thermal cover for large ungulates.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 1.3 Western Snowberry-American Plum-Chokecherry/Western Wheatgrass: Combined with above normal precipitation, light to no use, and a reduction in fire frequency, native shrubs become prominent and begin to dominate. This plant community can also develop after a high intense fire (via Community Pathway 1.4A) causing high tree mortality favoring a shrub dominated community. Plum and chokecherry will appear in patches while western snowberry may have spread across the entire site.

Invertebrates: The increased shrub component will provide early-season (chokecherry and plum) and mid-season (western snowberry) nectar and pollen sources for bumblebees, butterflies, and other pollinating species.

Birds: Western snowberry-dominated sites provide nesting, brood, and winter cover for sharp-tailed grouse and ring-necked pheasant. Western snowberry, chokecherry, and plum provide winter cover and food (berries) for grassland-nesting bird species that use (or can tolerate a small amount of) woody vegetation within areas dominated by grassland habitat. Woody vegetation may not reach enough density to provide habitat for woodland edge species. Brown-headed cowbird use will increase with an increase in the woody cover component of this ecological site.

Mammals: Increase in woody habitat provides winter and escape cover, birthing sites, browse, etc. for white-tailed deer. The increase in woody cover will not benefit bat species found in MLRA 55B since necessary maternity trees are limited to non-existent.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, taller native warm-season grass and the increase in woody vegetation will decrease habitat quality for the smooth green snake.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

2.0 Native/Invaded State

Community Phase 2.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass-Western Wheatgrass: This plant community develops through Transition Pathway T1A, due to changes in management and the presence of exotic, cool-season grasses. Lack of fire, complete rest, or chronic season-long or late fall grazing can facilitate this transition. The threshold between States 1.0 and 2.0 is crossed when exotic cool- season species (such as Kentucky bluegrass and/or smooth brome) become established. This plant community phase has a very similar appearance and function to the Reference State of Community 1.1, except it has a minor amount of cool-season exotic grasses and forbs. This phase functions at a high level for native wildlife; therefore, managers should consider the 2.0 community phase pathways to avoid transitioning to the Invaded State 3.0. There is no known Community Phase Pathway back to State 1.0 from State 2.0.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, an increase of sod- forming cool-season grasses may reduce sites for ground nesting bees.

Birds: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.2 Blue Grama/Sedges/Exotic Cool-Season Grasses: Heavy season-long grazing with or without drought along Community Pathway 2.1A leads to a mid-statured cool-season grass dominated plant community. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods along Community Phase Pathway 2.2A is an efficient, effective method to regain the cool-season grass and forb diversity components in Community Phase 2.1.

Invertebrates: Reduced diversity of native forbs and increase in sod-forming grasses limit foraging and nesting sites for all pollinators. Continuous, heavy season-long grazing or heavy seasonal grazing may reduce ground-nesting site availability.

Birds: Long-term heavy grazing will reduce nesting sites, forage (invertebrates), and cover. A reduced forb component may limit foraging opportunities. The stature is generally short, serving both mid- and short-grass nesting birds. Species that prefer mid-grass stature generally will be successful with normal to above normal precipitation and a change in management along the 2.2A Community Pathway. In years with reduced precipitation or heavy grazing during the nesting season, use by

mid-grass nesting species may be compromised. Limited stature and diverse prey populations provide good hunting opportunities for grassland raptors.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, chokecherry and western snowberry may provide increased food, thermal, protective, and escape cover dependent upon degree and height of browsing.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.3 Shrubs/Forbs/Exotic Cool-Season Grasses: Extended periods of non-use or very light grazing, with no fire, along Community Pathway 2.1B or 2.2B leads to community phase characterized by the dominance of shrubs which may include western snowberry, chokecherry, silver buffaloberry, hawthorn, and perhaps common buckthorn (alone or in combination). Green ash seedlings may also be present. Prescribed grazing, coupled with prescribed fire, along Community Phase Pathway 2.3A will be needed to move this plant community to 2.1.

Invertebrates: Reduced diversity of native forbs and increase in sod-forming grasses limit foraging and nesting sites for all pollinators. Shrubs (such as chokecherry, sliver buffaloberry, or hawthorn) will add an early season pollen and nectar source, while western snowberry will provide a mid-season pollen and nectar source. Shrubs can provide habitat for wood nesting bees.

Birds: This shrub dominated plant community provide nesting, brood, and winter cover for sharp- tailed grouse and ring-necked pheasant. Woody vegetation can reach enough density to reduce or eliminate habitat for grassland nesting birds, but provide needed habitat for woodland edge species. Brown-headed cowbird use will increase with an increase in the woody cover component of this ecological site.

Mammals: Shrubs provide increased food, thermal, protective, and escape cover for small and large mammals.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Increase shrub density reduces or eliminates habitat for most amphibians and reptiles.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

3.0 Invaded State

Community Phase 3.1 Exotic Cool-Season Grasses/Exotic Forbs/Shrubs: Transitional Pathway T2A is characterized by non-use and elimination of fire when exotic cool-season grasses are present, as in Community Phase 2.0. This plant community phase is characterized by a dominance (>30%) of exotic cool-season grasses, such as smooth brome; native grasses represent less than 40% of the plant community. Restoration Pathway R3A, through prescribed burning and high levels of grazing management, requires remnant amounts of native warm- and cool-season and forbs to be successful. The remnant native community needs frequent prescribed burns and high levels of grazing management targeting the exotic cool-season grasses to improve competitiveness and increase vigor and density. Without intensive management, shrubs will not decrease and the remnant native plants will not increase adequately to transition back to State 2.0. Intensified management along the R3A Pathway may have significant short-term negative impacts on wildlife habitat; however, this is necessary to restore long-term native habitat functions.

Invertebrates: Exotic grasses limit use by beneficial insects provided in States 1.0 and 2.0. Increased litter and lack of grazing leads to limited contact between plant material and mineral soil, resulting in a cooler micro-climate which is unfavorable to most insects. Lack of bare soil limits ground-nesting sites for native bees and other ground-nesting insects. Western snowberry, plum, chokecherry and prairie rose provide early- to mid-season pollen and nectar sources. The lack of nectar-producing forbs limits forage opportunities for bumblebees, regal fritillary, monarch butterfly, and other pollinating species.

Birds: The combination of exotic cool-season grasses and the increases in western snowberry, plum, chokecherry and prairie rose limits habitat and life requisites for most obligate grassland-nesting birds. Lack of grazing and fire increase litter and the tendency of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome to lay down which limits use by many grassland-nesting birds. Western snowberry, plum, chokecherry and prairie rose provide early- to mid-season pollen and nectar sources, increasing invertebrates as a food source for many grassland bird species. The woody component of this plant community limits use as sharp-tailed grouse lek sites, but it may provide nesting, brood and winter cover.

Mammals: Litter accumulation and exotic grass cover favors thermal, protective, and escape cover for small rodents. Depending on the density of shrubs, this plant community can provide birthing, escape, and thermal cover for large ungulates.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

4.0 Go-Back State

Community Phase 4.1 Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics: These plant communities are the result of severe soil disturbance (such as cropping, recreational activity, or concentrated livestock activity for a prolonged period). Following cessation of disturbances, the resulting plant community is dominated by early pioneer annual and perennial plant species. Plant species composition and production are highly variable. Weedy plants can provide pollinator habitat along with spring and summer cover for many mammals and birds, and their young. Dense weed cover can keep soils moist, increasing insect presence. Tall stature provided by some weeds, such as marsh elder and ragweed, offer thermal cover and seeds throughout winter. The response by wildlife species will be dependent upon plant community composition, vegetative stature, patch size, and management activities (such as prescribed grazing, burning, inter-seeding, haying, or noxious weed control). Successful restoration of native species along Transition Pathway R4A can result in a native grass and forb community in State 2.0.

5.0 Invaded Wooded State

Loamy Overflow ecological sites historically supported a woody plant community in patches of trees and/or shrubs scattered across the site. Repeated grazing and fire would have reverted these small patches to 1.0 Reference State. Today, with complete removal of grazing and fire (through Transition Pathways T2B, and T3A), this community phase crossed the threshold from an herbaceous plant community to a community dominated by hardwoods and shrubs often referred to as ‘woody draws’. The composition of this woody plant community will be dependent upon shading (tree canopy density), management (grazing), and the amount of invasive grass and shrub species.

Community Phase 5.1 Hardwoods/Shrubs: Wooded draws are an important vegetative type used by many large herbivorous mammals. Multi-level canopy, high edge-to-area ratio, and prevalence of preferred forage provides high quality wildlife habitat. Within MLRA 55B, woody draws (such as those in 5.0 Invaded Wooded State) provide important travel corridors, security cover, and foraging, loafing, and parturition (birthing) areas.

Invertebrates: Early season flowering shrubs provide pollen and nectar. However, pollinating insects may need adjacent herbaceous- and forb-dominated ecological sites for mid- to late-season pollen sources. Forb diversity and abundance will be dependent upon the amount of canopy closure found at a particular site and will be greatly reduced due to shading. Lower trophic-level consumers (such as invertebrate decomposers, scavengers, shredders, predators, herbivores, dung beetles, and fungal-feeders) will use woody plant material, leaves, and limited amount of grasses in contact with mineral soil. The woody component of this site is not conducive to use by any species of conservation priority in MLRA 55B. Woody plant material is available for wood-nesting bees. These wind-protected, moist plant communities provide favorable habitat for flying insects (flies, mosquitoes, moths, etc.). Favorable climatic conditions can lead to large hatches of insects.

Birds: This site no longer provides habitat for grassland-nesting bird species due to the dominance of woody vegetation. Bird species using and benefiting from woodland edge (such as wild turkey, black- billed cuckoo, black-capped chickadee, and gray catbird) may be found in this community phase dependent upon overstory and understory density. These sites provide nesting habitat for many migratory passerines and quality winter cover for sharp-tailed grouse, eastern screech owl, great horned owl, wild turkey, and non-migrating passerine birds (such as black-capped chickadee and white-breasted nuthatch). Berry producing shrubs provide late summer, fall, and winter forage for many bird species. Wildlife use increases as the depth of snow increases during the winter, thereby becoming critical to the sustainment of winter resident bird populations. The presence of woody plant species may increase mammalian and avian predation and increase brood parasitism by brown- headed cowbirds on adjacent grassland ecological sites.

Mammals: Little and big brown bats use these states for roost sites and forage. Small herbivores that can use (or tolerate) woodland edge, such as American porcupine and cotton-tail rabbit, will benefit from this plant community phase. Shrubs and trees provide security and thermal cover used by white-tailed deer for foraging, loafing, and rearing young-of-the-year. Multi-layer shrub/tree communities provide concealment protection from predators during parturition. Plant species provide highly nutritious forage during peak lactation, one of the most energy-demanding time periods of the year for female ungulates.

Winter white-tailed deer diets are dominated by chokecherry, western snowberry, serviceberry, rose, and various species of gooseberry.

Amphibians and Reptiles: This Invaded Wooded State does not provide habitat for species of conservation priority.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1; however, the wooded state can occur within drainageways that are near receiving water bodies. The bare soil found under the tree and shrub canopy may reduce infiltration and nutrient cycling. Run-off, sediment yield, and nutrient load increase from the site, negatively impacting receiving water bodies.

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations

This site is well adapted to managed grazing by domestic livestock. The predominance of herbaceous plants across all plant community phases best lends these sites to grazing by cattle, but other domestic grazers with differing diet preferences may also be a consideration depending upon management objectives. Often, the current plant community does not match any particular plant community (as described in the ecological site description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. Proper interpretation of this inventory data will permit the establishment of a safe, initial stocking rate for the type and class of animals and level of grazing management. More accurate stocking rate estimates should eventually be calculated using actual stocking rate information and monitoring data.

NRCS defines prescribed grazing as “managing the harvest of vegetation with grazing and/or browsing animals with the intent to achieve specific ecological, economic, and management objectives”. As used in this site description, the term ‘prescribed grazing’ is intended to include multiple grazing management systems (e.g., rotational grazing, twice-over grazing, conservation grazing, targeted grazing, etc.) provided that, whatever management system is implemented, it meets the intent of prescribed grazing definition. The basic grazing prescription addresses balancing forage demand (quality and quantity) with available forage, varying grazing and deferment periods from year-to-year, matching recovery/deferment periods to growing conditions when pastures are grazed more than once in a growing season, implementation of a contingency (e.g., drought) plan, and a monitoring plan. When the management goal is to facilitate change from one plant community phase or state to another, then the prescription needs to be designed to shift the competitive advantage to favor the native grass and forb species.

Grazing levels are noted within the plant community narratives and pathways in reference to grazing/prescribed grazing management. “Degree of utilization” is defined as the proportion of the current years forage production that is consumed and/or destroyed by grazing animals (may refer to a single plant species or a portion or all the vegetation). “Grazing utilization” is classified as slight, moderate, full, close, and severe (see the following table for description of each grazing use category). The following utilization levels are also described in the Ranchers Guide to Grassland Management IV. Utilization levels are determined by using the landscape appearance method as outlined in the Interagency Technical Reference “Utilization Studies and Residual Measurements” 1734-3.

Utilization Level % Use Description
Slight (Light) 0-20 Appears practically undisturbed when viewed obliquely. Only choice areas and forage utilized.

Moderate 20-40 Almost all of accessible range shows grazing. Little or no use of poor forage. Little evidence of trailing to grazing.

Full 40-60 All fully accessible areas are grazed. The major sites have key forage species properly utilized (about half taken, half left). Points of concentration with overuse limited to 5 to 10 percent of accessible area.

Close (Heavy) 60-80 All accessible range plainly shows use and major sections closely cropped. Livestock forced to use less desirable forage, considering seasonal preference.

Severe > 80 Key forage species completely used. Low-value forages are dominant.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. The site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B, but includes some soils in group C. Infiltration varies from moderately slow to moderately rapid; runoff potential varies from negligible to medium depending upon hydrologic group, surface texture, slope percent, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75% ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An exception would be where short grasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Areas where ground cover is less than 50% have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Recreational uses

Hunting and Bird Watching: National wildlife refuges, waterfowl production areas, state wildlife management areas (WMA), and North Dakota and South Dakota Department of Trust Lands provide herbaceous and woody cover for wildlife. National Wildlife Refuges and waterfowl production areas are owned and managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service and are available for public hunting, hiking, and bird watching. In addition, the United States Army Corps of Engineers and the United States Bureau of Reclamation manage three man-made reservoirs - Jamestown Reservoir (2,036 acres), Pipestem Reservoir (1,027 acres), and Lake Ashtabula (5,174 acres) for flood control, also providing fish habitat and adjacent uplands for wildlife cover.

Lonetree WMA is the largest state managed wildlife area covering 32,800 acres. Numerous WMAs in North Dakota and Game Production Areas in South Dakota are found within this MLRA. The largest refuges managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife service are Arrowwood National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) Complex consists of 75,000 acres and Tewaukon National NWR covers 8,363 acres.

Fishing: Approximately 100 lakes are managed for public fishing within MLRA 55B. Most of these lakes offer boat docks and ramps. These lakes contain various sport fish including walleye, northern pike, yellow perch, catfish, trout, crappie, and bluegill. Many of these lakes are known for excellent round-around walleye and yellow perch fishery.

Camping: Fort Ramson State Park, Pipestem Reservoir, Jamestown Reservoir, Spiritwood Lake, Clausen Springs, Little Yellowstone, Richmond Lake State Recreation Area, Mina Lake State Recreation Area, and other public and private campgrounds are found within the MLRA. Limited, primitive camping is available on wildlife management areas. Ft. Ransom State Park (North Dakota), located along the Sheyenne River has a designated horse park with 15 miles of trails.

Hiking/Biking/Horseback Riding: Horseback riders, hikers, and biker can enjoy over 15 miles of multi-use trails at Fort Ransom State Park. The Jamestown Reservoir (5 miles), Pipestem Reservoir (8 miles) and Arrowwood National Wildlife Refuge (9.4 miles) maintain hiking trails. The Lonetree Wildlife Management Area has a 32- mile segment of the North Country Trail. It is designed for hiking and non-motorized travel including mountain bikes or horseback riding.

Canoeing/Kayaking: The Sheyenne River offers 278 miles of canoeing/kayaking from May-July. A kayak kiosk is located at Valley City and canoe/kayak rentals are available at Fort Ransom State Park. The James River has a canoe trail starting in Grand Rapids and canoeing down to the James River Dam site in LaMoure; no rentals are available.

Auto Tour: A 63-mile scenic drive starts north of Valley City and heading south through Sheyenne River Valley. Audubon National Wildlife Refuge offers a 5.5-mile auto-tour route winding through both prairie grassland and wetland habitats of the lower portion of the James River Valley.

Wood products

There are no significant wood products found on this site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Other information

Site Development and Testing Plan
• The slope range for this site is currently 0 to 6 percent. In several areas, plant communities similar to Loamy Overflow have been observed on slopes exceeding 6 percent. These areas generally are a minor component, but some may make up more than 15 percent of the spatial extent of a map unit. Further investigation and documentation of the vegetation of these areas is recommended.

This site currently includes soils on terraces and flood plain steps, particularly along the James and Sheyenne Rivers. A unique, provisional ecological site (Loamy Floodplain) had been proposed to separate these areas from Loamy Overflow soils which occur in upland swales but has not been developed. Some of the terraces may have the frequency and duration of flooding to be best represented by a Riparian Complex ESD; other terraces may be better represented by a Loamy Terrace site similar to the one used in MLRA 54. The major soils of interest in MLRA 55B are LaDelle La Prairie, and Velva. These soils, map units, and flooding frequency/duration need further review to determine the appropriate ESD and MLRA soil survey projects to be pursued to resolve the issue in a consistent manner.
• Further documentation may be needed for plant communities in all states. This site currently includes soils on low terraces of flood plains; a unique, provisional site (Loamy Floodplain) has been proposed to separate these areas from Loamy Overflow soils which occur in upland swales. Plant data has been collected in previous range-site investigations, including clipping data; however, this data needs review to determine which sampling sites occur in upland swales and which sampling sites occur on floodplains. The data also needs review to determine if geo-referenced sites meeting Tier 3 standards for either vegetative or soil data are available; if not, representative sites will be selected for further investigation.
• Further evaluation and refinement of the State-and-Transition model may be needed to identify disturbance driven dynamics. Additional states and/or phases may be required to address grazing response.
• Site concepts will be refined as the above noted investigations are completed.
• The long-term goal is to complete an approved, correlated Ecological Site Description as defined by the National Ecological Site Handbook.

This ESD is the best available knowledge. The site concept and species composition table have been used in the field and tested for more than five years. It is expected that as additional information becomes available revisions may be required.

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS and other federal/state agency clipping and inventory data. Also, field knowledge of range-trained personnel was used. All descriptions were peer reviewed and/or field-tested by various private, state and federal agency specialists.

Other references

Bakker, K.K. 2003. The effect of woody vegetation on grassland nesting birds: an annotated bibliography. The Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 82:119-141.

Barker, W.T. and W. C. Whitman. 1988. Vegetation of the Northern Great Plains. Rangelands 10(6): 266-272. Bluemle. J.P. 2016. North Dakota’s geologic legacy. North Dakota State University Press. 382 pages.

Briske, D.D. (editor). 2017. Rangeland systems – processes, management, and challenges. Springer Series on Environmental Management. 661 pages.

Burgess, R.L. 1965. A study of plant succession in the sandhills of southeastern North Dakota. Proceedings ND Academy of Science 19:62-80

DeKeyser, E.S., G. Clambey, K. Krabbenhoft, and J. Ostendorf. 2009. Are changes in species composition on central North Dakota rangelands due to non-use management? Rangelands 31:16-19

Dix, R.L. and F.E. Smeins. 1967. The prairie, meadow, and marsh vegetation of Nelson County, North Dakota. Canadian Journal of Botany 45:21-57.

Dornbusch, M.J., R.F. Limb, and C.K. Gasch. 2018. Facilitation of an exotic grass through nitrogen enrichment by an exotic legume. Rangeland Ecology & Management 71:691-694.

Dyke, S.R., S.K. Johnson, and P.T. Isakson. 2015. North Dakota state wildlife action plan. North Dakota Game and Fish Department, Bismarck, ND. 468 pages.

Ehrenfeld, Joan G. 2002. Effects of exotic plant invasions on soil nutrient cycling processes. Ecosystems 6:503-523.

Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; designation of critical habitat for the Dakota skipper and Poweshiek skipperling; Vol. 79 No. Final Rule October 1, 2015, 50 CFR Part 17.

Ereth, C., J. Hendrickson, D. Kirby, E. DeKeyser, K. Sedevic, and M. West. Controlling Kentucky bluegrass with herbicide and burning is influenced by invasion level. Invasive Plant Science and Management 10: 80-89.

Ewing, J. 1924. Plant succession on the brush prairie in northwestern Minnesota. Journal of Ecology 12:228- 266.

Gilgert, W.; and S. Zack. 2010. Integrating multiple ecosystem services introduction ecological site descriptions. Rangelands: 32:49-54.

Grant, T.A. and R.K. Murphy. 2005. Changes on woodland cover on prairie refuges in North Dakota, USA. Natural Areas Journal 25:359-368.

Heitschmidt, R. K., K. D. Klement, and M. R. Haferkamp. 2005. Interactive effects of drought and grazing on Northern Great Plains rangelands. Rangeland Ecology and Management 58:11-19.

Hendrickson, J.R., P. S. Johnson, M. A. Liebig, K. K. Sedivec, and G. A. Halvorson. 2016. Use of ecological sites in managing wildlife and livestock: an example with prairie dogs. Rangelands

Hendrickson, J.R., S.L. Kronberg, and E.J. Scholljegerdes. 2020. Can targeted grazing reduce abundance of invasive perennial grass (Kentucky bluegrass) on native mixed-grass prairie? Rangeland Ecology and Management, 73:547-551.

Higgins, K.F. 1984. Lightning fires in grasslands in North Dakota and in pine-savanna lands in nearby South Dakota and Montana. J. Range Manage. 37:100-103.

Higgins, K.F. 1986. Interpretation and compendium of historical fire accounts in the Northern Great Plains. United States Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Resource Publication 161. 39 pages.

Higgins, K.F., A.D. Kruse, and J.L. Piehl. 1989. Effects of fire in the Northern Great Plains. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Cooperative Extension Service South, Dakota State University. Extension Circular 761. 48 pages.

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska, 830728 Chase Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583-0728. (http://hprcc.unl.edu)

Johnson, Sandra. 2015. Reptiles and amphibians of North Dakota. North Dakota Game and Fish Department. 64 pages.

Jordan, N. R., D.L. Larson, and S.C. Huerd. 2008. Soil modification by invasive plants: effects on native and invasive species of mixed-grass prairies. Biological Invasions 10:177-190.

Mader, E., M. Shepherd, M. Vaughan, and S.H. Black. 2011. Attracting native pollinators: protecting North America's bees and butterflies. Accessed at https://xerces.org, May 1, 2017.

North Dakota Division of Tourism, Accessed on February 25, 2019. Available at https://www.ndtourism.com/sports-recreation

North Dakota Parks and Recreation Department, Accessed on February 25, 2019. Available at http://www.parkrec.nd.gov/recreationareas/recreationareas.html

Palit, R., G. and E.S. DeKeyser. 2022. Impacts and drivers of smooth brome (Bromus inermis Leyes.) invasion in native ecosystems. Plants: 10,3390. http://https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/11/10/1340

Palit, R., G. Gramig, and E.S. DeKeyser. 2021. Kentucky bluegrass invasion in the Northern Great Plains and prospective management approaches to mitigate its spread. Plants: 10,817. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040817

Printz, J.L. and J.R. Hendrickson. 2015. Impacts of Kentucky bluegrass Invasion (Poa pratensis) on ecological processes in the Northern Great Plains. Rangelands 37(6):226-232.

Redmann, Robert E. 1975. Production ecology of grassland plant communities in western North Dakota. Ecological Monographs 45:83-106.

Reeves, J.L., J.D. Derner, M.A. Sanderson, J.R. Hendrickson, S.L. Kronberg, M.K. Petersen, and L.T. Vermeire. 2014. Seasonal weather influences on yearling beef steer production in C3-dominated Northern Great Plains rangeland. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 183:110-117.

Royer, R. A., 2003. Butterflies of North Dakota: an atlas and guide. Minot State University, Minot, ND.

Seabloom, R. 2020. Mammals of North Dakota. North Dakota Institute for Regional Studies, Fargo, ND. 470 pages.

Sedivec, K.D., J.L. Printz. 2014. Ranchers guide to grassland management IV. NDSU Extension Service publication R1707.

Severson, K. E. and C. Hull Sieg. 2006. The nature of eastern North Dakota: Pre-1880 Historical Ecology. North Dakota Institute for Regional Studies.

South Dakota Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. 2014. South Dakota wildlife action plan. Wildlife Division Report 2014-03.

Spaeth, K.E., Hayek, M.A., Toledo, D., and Hendrickson, J. 2019. Cool season grass impacts on native mixedgrass prairie species in the Norther Great Plains. America’s Grassland Conference: Working Across Boundaries. The Fifth Biennial Conference on the Conservation of America’s Grasslands. Bismarck, ND. 20- 22 August.

Tidwell, D., D.T. Fogarty, and J.R. Weir. 2021. Woody encroachment in grasslands, a guide for understanding risk and vulnerability. Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service publication E- 1054. 32 pages.

Toledo, D., M. Sanderson, K. Spaeth, J. Hendrickson, and J. Printz. 2014. Extent of Kentucky bluegrass and its effect on native plant species diversity and ecosystem services in the Northern Great Plains of the United State. Invasive Plant Science and Management 7(4): 543-552.

USDA, NRCS. 2021. National Range and Pasture Handbook, (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/national/landuse/rangepasture/?cid=stelprdb1043084)

USDA, NRCS. 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, 100 Centennial Mall North, Room 152, Lincoln, NE 68508- 3866. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/tools/?cid=nrcs142p2_053552)

USDA, NRCS. National Water & Climate Center, 1201 NE Lloyd Blvd, Suite 802, Portland, OR 97232-1274. (https://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/)

USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

USDA, NRCS, Various Published Soil Surveys.

USDI BLM.1999. Utilization studies and residual measurements. Interagency Technical Reference 1734-3.

Vinton, M.A. and E.M. Goergen. 2006. Plant-soil feedbacks contribute to the persistence of Bromus inermis in tallgrass prairie. Ecosystems 9: 967-976.

Whitman, W.H., H. Hanson, and R. Peterson. 1943. Relation of drought and grazing to North Dakota range lands. North Dakota Agricultural Experimentation Bulletin 340.

Contributors

David Dewald
Jonathan Fettig
Alan Gulsvig
Mark Hayek
Chuck Lura
Jeff Printz
Steve Sieler
Hal Weiser

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 4/25/2025