State 1
Reference

This state represented the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site. This state was dominated by warm- and cool-season grasses. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included frequent fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Mid and tall stature grass species declined and a corresponding increase in short stature warm-season grasses and cool-season grass-like species would have occurred during periods of prolonged drought and/or excessive disturbance . Slight shifts would have occurred in the timing of energy capture, hydrologic function and nutrient cycling between plant community phases within State 1. High basal density, minimal bare ground, and deep root systems resulted in low runoff rates and high infiltration. Overall, the ecological processes were functioning near optimum levels.

Community 1.1
Prairie Sandreed-Porcupinegrass-Bluestem (Calamovilfa longifolia-Hesperostipa spartea-Andropogon spp., Schizachyrium scoparium)

This community phase was historically the most dominant both temporally and spatially. The major grasses and sedges included prairie sandreed, porcupinegrass, sand bluestem, and big bluestem. Other associated grasses included needle and thread, little bluestem, sideoats grama, and sand dropseed. Common forbs included Cuman ragweed, field sagewort, white sagebrush, milkweed, field chickweed, Canada horseweed, and purple prairie clover. Leadplant, western sandcherry, prairie sagewort, and prairie rose were common shrubs. Annual production likely varied from about 1800-3200 pounds per acre with grasses and grass-likes, forbs, and shrubs contributing about 85%, 10%, and 5% respectively. Because both warm-season and cool-season grasses were well represented in the community, production would have been distributed throughout the growing season. This community represents the plant community phase upon which interpretations are primarily based and is described in the “Plant Community Composition and Group Annual Production” portion of this ecological site description.

Community 1.2
Needle and Thread-Prairie Sandreed-Blue Grama (Hesperostipa comata-Calamovilfa longifolia-Bouteloua gracilis)

This plant community resulted from periods of below average precipitation with increased disturbance such as heavy, frequent grazing over a period of several years and/or several consecutive years of below average precipitation. This increase in grazing pressure may have resulted from proximity to a water source, changes in fire frequency and/or prolonged drought. Compared to Community Phase 1.1 needle and thread would have displaced porcupinegrass to become the dominant needlegrass while blue grama, sand dropseed, and sedges would have also increased. Prairie sandreed and the bluestems would have decreased. Forb species such as field sagewort, goldenrod, Cuman ragweed, and common yarrow would have increased. Annual production would have been somewhat reduced compared to Community Phase 1.1.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Community Phase Pathway 1.1 to 1.2 occurred during periods of below average precipitation with increased disturbance resulting in an increase of needle and thread and blue grama with a corresponding decrease in bluestems and porcupinegrass.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Community Phase Pathway 1.2 to 1.1 occurred upon the return to average precipitation and disturbance regime, which allowed for the recovery of the bluestems, porcupinegrass and prairie sandreed.

State 2
Native/Invaded

This state is similar to State 1: Reference State but has now been colonized by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and/or quackgrass which are now present in small amounts. Although the state is still dominated by native grasses, an increase in these exotic cool-season grasses can be expected. These exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. These exotic cool-season grasses have been particularly and consistently invasive under extended periods of no use and no fire. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 4: Invaded State should be expected. Annual production of this state can be quite variable, in large part due to the amount of exotic cool-season grasses. However, annual production may be similar to that of State 1: Reference State (i.e. 1800-3200 pounds per acre).

Characteristics and indicators. The presence of trace amounts of exotic cool-season grasses indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2. The presence of exotic biennial or perennial leguminous forbs (i.e. sweet clover, black medic) may not, on their own, indicate a transition from State 1 to State 2 but may facilitate that transition.

Resilience management. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. Grazing management should be applied that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. This may include: (1) grazing when exotic cool-season grasses are actively growing and native cool-season grasses are dormant; (2) applying proper deferment periods allowing native grasses to recover and maintain or improve vigor; (3) adjusting overall grazing intensity to reduce excessive plant litter (above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 – see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet); (4) incorporating early heavy spring utilization which focuses grazing pressure on exotic cool-season grasses and reduces plant litter provided that livestock are moved when grazing selection shifts from exotic cool-season grasses to native grasses. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that maintains or enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. Prescribed burns should be applied as needed to adequately reduce/remove excessive plant litter and maintain the competitive advantage for native species. Timing of prescribed burns (spring vs. summer vs. fall) should be adjusted to account for differences in annual growing conditions and applied during windows of opportunity to best shift the competitive advantage to the native species.

Community 2.1
Prairie Sandreed-Porcupinegrass-Bluestem (Calamovilfa longifolia-Hesperostipa spartea-Andropogon spp., Schizachyrium scoparium)

This Community Phase is similar to Community Phase 1.1 but has been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and/or quackgrass. However, these exotics are present in smaller amounts with the community still dominated by native grasses. Annual production is in the range of 1800-3200 pounds per acre. Grazing systems that allow for adequate recovery periods following grazing events and, potentially, the combination of prescribed grazing and prescribed burning which closely mimics the natural disturbance regime will help maintain this community phase.

Community 2.2
Needle and Thread-Prairie Sandreed-Blue Grama/Sun Sedge/Forbs (Hesperostipa comata-Calamovilfa longifolia-Bouteloua gracilis/Carex inops/Forbs)

This plant community phase is characterized by a decline in porcupinegrass, sand bluestem, and a corresponding increase in the more grazing tolerant needle and thread, sand dropseed, sedges and Kentucky bluegrass. Forbs such as common yarrow, goldenrod, field sagewort, and white sagebrush will increase while the leguminous forbs may decrease. The shrub component remains similar, however, prairie sagewort may increase.

Community 2.3
Blue Grama/Sun Sedge/Exotic Grasses/Forbs (Bouteloua gracilis/Carex inops/Exotic Grasses/Forbs)

This community phase results from heavy season-long grazing over a period of several years. Blue grama becomes the dominant grass with lesser amounts of upland sedges and Kentucky bluegrass. Grazing tolerant forbs also increase. The needlegrasses and tall statured warm-season grasses are likely still present but may not be readily observable. Conspicuous forbs often include goldenrod, field sagewort, yellow salsify, white heath aster, common yarrow, and Cuman ragweed. Prairie sagewort and prairie rose are the principal shrubs. This Community Phase is approaching the threshold leading to a transition to State 4: Invaded State. As a result, it is an “at risk” community. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 4: Invaded State should be expected.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Community Phase Pathway 2.1 to 2.2 occurs during periods of heavy season-long grazing which causes a shift from dominance of prairie sandreed and porcupinegrass to more grazing tolerant needle and thread, blue grama, sun sedge, and minor amounts of Kentucky Bluegrass.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.1 is initiated with the implementation of prescribed grazing and prescribed burning. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage away from the exotic cool-season species to the mid statured bunchgrasses and tall statured rhizomatous grasses. Properly timed prescribed burning may expedite this shift.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3

Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.3 occurs during periods heavy season-long grazing, leading to a marked increase short statured grasses and sedges (i.e. blue grama, sun sedge) with a corresponding decrease prairie sandreed and the needlegrasses.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

This community phase pathway 2.3 to 2.2 is initiated by implementation of prescribed grazing and prescribed burning. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage from the exotic cool-season species to the remnant native cool-season bunchgrass species and tall statured warm-season grasses. Kentucky bluegrass will remain in this community at varying amounts depending on the level of management. Caution should be exercised when initiating this restoration pathway to ensure that management actions do not favor Kentucky bluegrass resulting in unexpectedly crossing the threshold to State 4: Invaded State.

State 3
Wooded State

This state historically existed as small patches of shrubs (e.g. smooth sumac, western snowberry, chokecherry, and/or wild rose) scattered across the site, particularly where these shrubs could have encroached onto the site vegetatively (e.g. rhizomes, root sprouts) or by seed from nearby woody vegetation.

Community 3.1
Shrubs/Exotic Grasses/Forbs

This Community Phase is results from no use and no fire, or light grazing particularly during times of above average precipitation. Common woody species often include smooth sumac, western snowberry, chokecherry, and wild rose. A marked increase in non-use management and active fire suppression since European influence has enabled this state to expand and become more widespread. Exotic cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass generally increase along with woody species.

State 4
Invaded State

This state is the result of invasion and dominance by exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and/or quackgrass. The exotic leafy spurge and Canada thistle are also known to invade the site. The exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. Common forbs often include white heath aster, goldenrod, common yarrow, and white sagebrush. Shrubs such as western snowberry and rose may, however, show marked increases. Once the state is well established, prescribed burning and grazing techniques have been largely ineffective in suppressing or eliminating these three species even though some short-term reductions may appear successful. Annual production of this state may vary widely, in part due to variations in the extent of invasion by exotic cool-season grasses. However, annual production may be in the range of 2800-3800 pounds per acre with the exotic cool-season grasses contributing the bulk of the production.

Characteristics and indicators. This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.

Resilience management. Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning, and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g. western snowberry) populations.

Community 4.1
Exotic Grasses/Forbs

This community phase is typically dominated by exotic grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, but perhaps smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and/or quackgrass. Exotic forbs such as leafy spurge or Canada thistle may also be present. Grazing tolerant native forbs such as white sagebrush, Cuman ragweed, and common yarrow are often noticeably present. Left untreated, leafy spurge will continue to increase, reducing the remnant native grasses and eventually reducing the Kentucky bluegrass. The longer this community phase exists, the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of Kentucky bluegrass are short-lived.

State 5
Go-Back State

Community 5.1
Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics

This state is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T6A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this state is plant succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which may be noxious weeds needing control. Over time, however, the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and/or quackgrass will likely predominate.

State 6
Cropland State

Cropland State results from planting and production of annual crops. This plant community is most commonly associated with cropped fields. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of tillage induced compaction, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques..

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

This is the transition from the State 1: Reference State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State due to the introduction and establishment of exotic cool-season grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and/or quackgrass. This transition was probably inevitable and corresponded to a decline in native warm-season and cool-season grasses. This transition may have been exacerbated by chronic season-long or heavy late season grazing. Complete rest from grazing and suppression of fire could also have hastened the transition. The threshold between states was crossed when Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, crested wheatgrass, quackgrass, or other exotic species became established on the site.

Constraints to recovery. (i.e. variables or processes that preclude recovery of the former state). Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

This transition from the State 2: Native/Invaded to State 3: Wooded State generally occurs during periods of no use and no fire, light grazing, and extended periods of above average precipitation, particularly when an abundant shrub component is present. It has also become more frequent following European settlement when the historic fire regime was markedly reduced.

Context dependence. No use and no fire or light grazing, long-term above average precipitation

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

This transition from the State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 4: Invaded State generally occurs with light grazing, heavy season-long grazing, or periods of non-use especially when the shrub component is sparse. Exotic cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and/or smooth brome often become the dominant graminoids. Studies indicate that a threshold may exist in this transition when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30% of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40% of the plant community composition. Similar thresholds may exist for other exotic cool-season grasses.

Constraints to recovery. Variations in growing conditions (e.g. cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations. The opportunity for high intensity spring burns (which can serve to reduce the introduced cool-season species) is severely reduced by early green-up and the lack of fuel.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

This restoration pathway from State 3: Wooded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with brush control. However, depending upon level of remnant native grasses and forbs, a range planting may also be necessary to re-establish the herbaceous plant community, thus completing the restoration. A combination of brush control methods may be necessary (e.g. chemical, mechanical, prescribed burning). However, initially, low fuel loads may preclude the application of prescribed burns. As a result, herbicides and/or mechanical brush control may be necessary to initiate the restoration effort. Subsequently, several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals, in part because many of the shrubs sprout profusely following one burn. If a range planting is necessary, it may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical planting methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful.

Context dependence. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fuel type (herbaceous vs. shrub vs. tree), fine fuel amount and orientation ; (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on woody and exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses). The method of brush management will be site specific, but generally the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control or biological control - either singularly or in combination - in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species. A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique. Management (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species. Adding non-native species can impact the above and below ground biota. Some evidence suggests the addition of exotic legumes to the seeding mixture may favor exotic cool-season grass expansion/invasion.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

This transition from State 3: Wooded State to State 4: Invaded State can be accomplished with brush control. Initial use of herbicides and/or mechanical brush control to reduce smooth sumac and other shrubs may be necessary to increase fine fuel loads to enable the application of prescribed burning to further control sprouting shrubs species.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 2

This restoration pathway from State 4: Invaded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State may be accomplished with the implementation of long-term prescribed grazing and prescribed burning, assuming there is an adequate component of native grasses to respond to the treatments. Both prescribed grazing and prescribed burning are likely necessary to successfully initiate this restoration pathway, the success of which depends upon the presence of a remnant population of native grasses in Community Phase 4.1. That remnant population, however, may not be readily apparent without close inspection. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because many of the shrubs (e.g. western snowberry) sprout profusely following one burn. Early season prescribed burns have been successful; however, fall burning may also be an effective technique. The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage from the exotic cool-season grasses to the native cool-season grasses.

Context dependence. Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species. Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g. September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation (e.g. “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses). The longer this community phase exists, the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of Kentucky bluegrass or smooth brome are typically short-lived.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 3

This transition from State 4: Invaded State to State 3: Wooded State occurs during periods of no use and no fire, or light grazing. It frequently occurs when the site is in close proximity to wooded areas where the shrubs may encroach vegetatively upon the site and/or serve as a seed source for these species to colonize the site. It has also become more frequent following European settlement when the historic fire regime was markedly reduced.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 2

This Restoration Pathway from State 5: Go-Back State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with a successful range planting. Following planting, prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, haying, or use of herbicides will generally be necessary to achieve the desired result and control any noxious weeds. It may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical planting methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. After establishment of the native plant species, prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources; management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses.

Context dependence. A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique. Management (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species. Adding non-native species can impact the above and below ground biota. Elevated soil nitrogen levels have been shown to benefit smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass more than some native grasses. As a result, fertilization, exotic legumes in the seeding mix, and other techniques that increase soil nitrogen may promote smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass invasion. The method or methods of herbaceous weed treatment will be site specific to each situation but, generally, the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control, or biological control - either singularly or in combination - in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species.

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 4

A failed range planting and/or secondary succession will lead to State 4: Invaded State.

Context dependence. Failed range plantings can result from many causes, both singularly and in combination, including: drought, poor seedbed preparation, improper seeding methods, seeded species not adapted to the site, insufficient weed control, herbicide carryover, poor seed quality (purity & germination), improper management.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 5

This is the Transition from any plant community to State 5: Go-Back State. It is most commonly associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of range planting, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of tillage induced compaction, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.