State 1
Reference

Transition from Reference State (State 1) T1 to Native/Invaded State (State 2) This state represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site. This state was dominated by warm-season grasses with minor amounts of cool-season grasses and forbs. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included frequent fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Mid and tall statured grass species would have declined with a corresponding increase in short statured warm-season grasses and cool-season grass-like species. Due to their fire tolerance, scattered, single stem oak trees would have been present on the site in all plant community phases. However, oak regeneration would have been reduced in the active blowout phase. Blowouts would have occurred as a result of prolonged drought and/or adjacent to areas of high animal impact, such as near perennial water sources. Slight shifts would have occurred in the timing of energy capture, hydrologic function and nutrient cycling between plant community phases 1.1 and 1.2 within State 1. Hydrologic function, energy capture and nutrient cycling would have been reduced in community phase 1.3 but would not have departed beyond the point of recovery.

Community 1.1
Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Prairie Junegrass/Bur Oak (Andropogon hallii-Calamovilfa longifolia-Koeleria macrantha/Quercus macrocarpa)

This community phase was the most dominant both temporally and spatially. Tall statured warm-season grasses such as sand bluestem and prairie sandreed would have been co-dominant with mid statured warm-season and cool-season grasses such as needle and thread, porcupinegrass, and little bluestem. Other grasses and grass-like species would have included sideoats grama, Canada wildrye, sand dropseed, prairie Junegrass, blue grama, and sun sedge. A variety of perennial forbs including prairie spiderwort, dotted blazing star, goldenrod, field sagewort, hairy false goldenaster, silky prairie clover, and sunflower were present. Shrubs included prairie sagewort, leadplant, Saskatoon serviceberry, chokecherry, smooth sumac, and prairie rose. Single stemmed bur oak trees would have been scattered across the site with oak mottes (a grove or clump of trees) occurring on some north facing slopes. Due to a diverse assemblage of plants, both rhizomatous and bunchgrasses, and presence of plant litter, this community would have been characterized by high infiltration, little runoff, and high drought tolerance. Annual production varied from about 1500-2700 pounds per acre with grasses and grass-likes, forbs, shrubs, and trees contributing about 80%, 10%, 7%, and 3% respectively. Both warm-season grasses and cool-season grasses were well represented in the community, and as a result production was distributed throughout the growing season. This community represents the plant community phase upon which interpretations are primarily based and is described in the “Plant Community Composition and Group Annual Production” portion of this ecological site description.

Community 1.2
Sun Sedge/Sand Dropseed-Needle and Thread/Bur Oak (Carex inops/Sporopobolus cryptandrus-Hesperostipa comata/Quercus macrocarpa)

Grasses and grass-like species would have still dominated this phase, but the overall productivity of these species would have been reduced while forbs would have increased. Needle and thread, blue grama, sand dropseed, and sedges would have increased. Prairie sandreed and the bluestems would have decreased but still would have been present. Forb species such as field sagewort, goldenrod, Cuman ragweed, common yarrow, and upright prairie coneflower would have increased. Regeneration of bur oak was reduced. The shift to the shallower rooted, short statured blue grama and sedges, coupled with an increase in bare ground, resulted in higher soil surface temperatures as compared to Community Phase 1.1. Due to soil texture, infiltration rates would have been similar to Community Phase 1.1. Annual production would have slightly reduced compared to that of Community Phase 1.1.

Community 1.3
Active Blowout/Blowout Grass-Prairie Sandreed/Pioneer Species (Active Blowout/Redfieldia flexuosa-Calamovilfa longifolia/Pioneer Species)

This plant community phase was not stable. It consisted of bare areas that were continually eroded by wind. Vegetation was spare and scattered. Patches of sand bluestem and prairie sandreed would have been scattered across the site with blowout grass and other pioneer perennial and annual species such as mat sandbur and common sunflower comprising the majority of the vegetation. Active wind erosion was very evident with soil deposition on leeward side of blowouts common. Excessive soil erosion in isolated instances may have resulted in a change in ecological site depending upon depth to water table. As erosion progressed, Subirrigated Sands and/or Subirrigated ecological sites may have developed within the Choppy Sands ecological site complex. Annual production and plant litter would have been greatly reduced as compared to Plant Community Phase 1.1, with bare ground exceeding 90 percent.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Community Phase Pathway 1.1 to 1.2 occurred during periods of below average precipitation which may have been intensified by repeated heavy grazing, either due to proximity to water or following short term fire intervals followed by intense grazing. The competitive advantage shifted to the more grazing tolerant mid statured bunchgrasses such as needle and thread and sand dropseed, short statured grass-likes, and warm-season short statured grasses like blue grama.

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Community Phase Pathway 1.2 to 1.1 occurred with a return to average precipitation patterns, grazing and fire regime which allowed for the recovery of tall statured warm-season species and mid statured warm-season and cool-season bunch grasses. As the plant community recovered, basal gaps would have decreased, and plant litter would have increased.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Community Phase Pathway 1.2 to 1.3 occurred with excessive disturbances such as prolonged drought, wildlife trailing or burrowing, or heavy grazing by wildlife due to proximity to a perennial water source would have significantly reduced perennial plant cover, reduced soil surface cover, and increased basal gap distance. This, coupled with the repeated disturbances, would have increased the amount of soil erosion due to wind, resulting in a blowout condition. These blowouts may have been relatively small and isolated or, depending upon the extent of the disturbance mechanism (i.e. long-term drought), covered larger areas.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Community Phase Pathway 1.3 to 1.2 occurred over several years of average or above average precipitation and a reduction or elimination of the disturbance resulting in an increase in sand bluestem, blowout grass, and pioneer annuals and perennials. This additional cover (plant litter and basal) would have altered the wind patterns at the soil surface as the pathway proceeded.

Context dependence. Return to average precipitation and disturbance regime

State 2
Native/Invaded

This state is similar to State 1: Reference State but has now been colonized by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass which are now present in small amounts. Although the state is still dominated by native grasses, an increase in these exotic cool-season grasses can be expected. These exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. These exotic cool-season grasses have been particularly and consistently invasive under extended periods of no use and no fire. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 4: Invaded State should be expected. Annual production of this state can be quite variable, in large part due to the amount of exotic cool-season grasses. Production may, however, be expected to be similar to that of State 1: Reference State (i.e. 1500-2700 pounds per acre).

Characteristics and indicators. The presence of trace amounts of exotic cool-season grasses indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2. The presence of exotic biennial or perennial leguminous forbs (i.e. sweet clover, black medic) may not, on their own, indicate a transition from State 1 to State 2 but may facilitate that transition.

Resilience management. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. Grazing management should be applied that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. This may include: (1) grazing when exotic cool-season grasses are actively growing and native cool-season grasses are dormant; (2) applying proper deferment periods allowing native grasses to recover and maintain or improve vigor; (3) adjusting overall grazing intensity to reduce excessive plant litter (above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 – see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet); (4) incorporating early heavy spring utilization which focuses grazing pressure on exotic cool-season grasses and reduces plant litter provided that livestock are moved when grazing selection shifts from exotic cool-season grasses to native grasses. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that maintains or enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. Prescribed burns should be applied as needed to adequately reduce/remove excessive plant litter and maintain the competitive advantage for native species. Timing of prescribed burns (spring vs. summer vs. fall) should be adjusted to account for differences in annual growing conditions and applied during windows of opportunity to best shift the competitive advantage to the native species.

Community 2.1
Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Prairie Junegrass/Bur Oak (Andropogon hallii-Calamovilfa longifolia-Koeleria macrantha/Quercus macrocarpa)

This Community Phase is similar to Community Phase 1.1 but has been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass. However, these exotics are present in smaller amounts with the community still dominated by native grasses. Also, due to the altered fire regime, oak mottes on north facing slopes have increased in size and canopy cover. Annual production may be comparable to that of Community Phase 1.1 (1500-2700 pounds per acre). However, as the exotic cool-season grasses increase, peak production will shift to earlier in the growing season. This plant community phase is described in the “Plant Community Composition and Group Annual Production” portion of this ecological site description.

Community 2.2
Sun Sedge/Sand Dropseed-Needle and Thread/Bur Oak (Carex inops/Sporopobolus cryptandrus-Hesperostipa comata/Quercus macrocarpa)

This community phase is similar to Community Phase 1.2 but has now been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and/or quackgrass. These exotics are, however, present in smaller amounts with the community still dominated by native grasses. This community phase is often dispersed throughout a pasture in an overgrazed/undergrazed pattern, typically referred to as patch grazing. Some overgrazed areas will exhibit the impacts of heavy use, while the ungrazed areas will have a build-up of litter and increased plant decadence. This is a typical pattern found in properly stocked pastures grazed season-long. As a result, Kentucky bluegrass tends to increase more in the undergrazed areas while the more grazing tolerant short statured species such as blue grama, and sedges increase in the heavily grazed areas. If present, Kentucky bluegrass may increase under heavy grazing. A shift to shallower rooted and short statured species, coupled with an increase in bare ground, results in higher soil surface temperatures compared to Community Phase 2.1. Infiltration rates would be similar, as would the timing of plant production. Annual plant production, however, is slightly reduced.

Community 2.3
Active Blowout/Blowout Grass-Prairie Sandreed/Pioneer Species (Active Blowout/Redfieldia flexuosa-Calamovilfa longifolia/Pioneer Species)

This community phase is similar to Community Phase 1.3 but typically has been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass. However, these exotics are present in smaller amounts with the community still dominated by native grasses. Leafy spurge is also an exotic of concern. This plant community may be characterized by “blowouts” (i.e. active dunes and/or denuded areas caused by wind erosion). Active wind erosion is conspicuous with soil deposition on the leeward side of the “blowouts.” It is unstable and generally occupies small, isolated areas (e.g. 2 acres or less), but can increase to become more extensive. Vegetation consists of sparse and scattered patches of sand bluestem and prairie sandreed along with blowout grass and other pioneer perennial and annual species (e.g. mat sandbur). Exotic forbs such as leafy spurge may also be present.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Community Phase Pathway 2.1 to 2.2. This pathway occurs with season-long grazing and/or periods of below average precipitation. Season-long grazing will shift the competitive advantage away from the tall warm-season rhizomatous grasses and mid statured warm-season and cool-season grasses to more grazing tolerant short statured grasses, grass-likes and forbs. Periods of below average precipitation will intensify the impact of the grazing and further facilitate this transition. Prolonged periods of drought would also result in this shift, with or without the grazing pressure.

Pathway 2.1B
Community 2.1 to 2.3

Community Phase Pathway 2.1 to 2.3. Excessive disturbance such as that related to off-road vehicle use or livestock trailing that removes plant cover resulting in a direct shift to plant community phase 2.3.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.1 is initiated by implementation of prescribed grazing management which includes adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage away from the introduced cool-season species and back to the tall statured warm-season rhizomatous grasses and mid statured warm-season and cool-season grasses. The addition of properly timed prescribed burning may expedite this shift.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.3

Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.3 occurs with excessive disturbances such as livestock trailing/loafing due to proximity to a perennial water source, or off-road vehicle use, and/or prolonged drought which would significantly reduce perennial plant cover, reduce soil surface cover, and increase basal gaps. This, coupled with the repeated disturbances, increases the amount of wind erosion resulting in a blowout condition.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

Community Phase Pathway 2.3 to 2.2 occurs with return to average precipitation and the implementation of prescribed grazing management which includes adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources will allow the remaining vegetation to recolonize and stabilize the site. Depending on the level of grazing management, fencing, seeding, mulching and complete deferment of the site for a couple of growing seasons may be necessary to speed the transition. Variation in seasonal precipitation may speed or delay recovery.

State 3
Wooded

This state historically existed as small patches of trees and/or shrubs scattered across the site, particularly when close to wooded areas where trees and shrubs could have encroached onto the site vegetatively (e.g. rhizomes, root sprouts) or provided a seed source for colonization of the site. Variations in fire frequency enabled woody plant species in some areas (i.e. period of infrequent fire) to grow large enough to escape the next fire event. As trees increased in size, canopy cover increased which altered micro-climate and reduced fine fuel amounts resulting in reduced fire intensity and frequency. This would have been the primary pathway under the historic disturbance regime and would have resulted in a mosaic pattern of small wooded patches interspersed within herbaceous plant community phases. A marked increase in non-use management and active fire suppression since European influence has enabled this state to expand and become more widespread. Smooth sumac or poison ivy often initially become the dominant shrubs within the herbaceous portion of the site. Remnant warm-season and cool-season grasses and forbs are still found within these shrubs but in reduced amounts due to increased shading. Kentucky bluegrass is often present but may or may not be the dominant herbaceous species. Chokecherry and Saskatoon serviceberry thickets become more common near the edges of the bur oak mottes as do young trees such as green ash and hackberry.

Community 3.1
Smooth Sumac-Poison Ivy/Exotic Grasses/Bur Oak (Rhus glabra-Toxicodendron rydbergii/Exotic Grasses/Quercus macrocarpa)

This plant community phase represents the shift from a herbaceous dominated plant community with scattered bur oak and oak mottes to one dominated by shrubs such as smooth sumac or poison ivy with a herbaceous understory dominated by Kentucky bluegrass and leafy spurge. Remnant native grasses and grass-likes would include sand dropseed, needle and thread, blue grama, and sun sedge. Forbs would include Cuman ragweed, field sagewort, and white sagebrush. As the canopy cover of this shrub layer increases, the herbaceous plant community shifts from the remnant warm-season and cool-season native species to the more shade tolerant Kentucky bluegrass. Existing bur oak mottes would increase in size as shrubs such as Saskatoon serviceberry, chokecherry, and western snowberry (usually associated with the exterior fringe of the oak motte) expand outward into the adjacent herbaceous dominated plant community. As the shrub component increases, herbaceous production declines. This, combined with the shading effect of the shrubs, limits the effectiveness of prescribed burning as a restoration tool.

Community 3.2
Quaking Aspen/Shrub (Populus tremuloides/Shrub)

Once established, the quaking aspen’s fast growth and clonal expansion often enables it to out-compete slower growing trees such as bur oak. Red cedar and buckthorn may invade the site. Quaking aspen may also encroach onto the site from adjacent Subirrigated Sands and Subirrigated ecological sites.

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

Community Phase Pathway 3.1 to 3.2 results from extended periods of no fire and no grazing. The lack of disturbance, primarily fire, shifts the competitive advantage to the taller, fast growing tree species such as quaking aspen. As the quaking aspen canopy increases, shade tolerant understory species increase. Increased canopy cover also serves to further decrease fire intensity and frequency.

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1

Community Phase Pathway 3.2 to 3.1 occurs with long-term absence of fire. Quaking aspen becomes decadent, resulting in a more open canopy which shifts the plant community towards 3.1.

State 4
Invaded

This state is often characterized by an almost total dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and leafy spurge or perhaps other exotic cool-season grasses (e.g. quackgrass, smooth brome, crested wheatgrass) and leafy spurge. Remnant native species may still be found on the site but in only minor amounts. The exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. Common forbs often include white heath aster, goldenrod, common yarrow, and white sagebrush. Shrubs such as western snowberry and rose may, however, show marked increases. Once the state is well established, prescribed burning and grazing techniques have been largely ineffective in suppressing or eliminating these three species even though some short-term reductions may appear successful. Annual production of this state may vary widely, in part due to variations in the extent of invasion by exotic cool-season grasses. However, annual production may be in the range of 2300-3300 pounds per acre with the exotic cool-season grasses accounting for the bulk of the production.

Characteristics and indicators. This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.

Resilience management. Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning and/or brush management, may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g. western snowberry) populations.

Community 4.1
Exotic Grasses/Leafy Spurge (Exotic Grasses/Euphorbia esula)

This community phase is recognized by the dominance of exotic cool-season grasses and leafy spurge. Kentucky bluegrass if often the major exotic cool-season grass, but other common exotic cool-season grasses that invade the site include smooth brome, quackgrass, and crested wheatgrass. The lack of disturbance allows plant litter amounts to increase, further shifting the competitive advantage to these exotic species. Tall, mid and short statured warm-season and cool-season native species begin to decline until they are completely displaced. Research would indicate that leafy spurge alters soil microbiology in a manner which inhibits the growth of native species. This effectively reduces any potential for restoration to a native dominated plant community without very significant intervention. Compared to State 1: Reference State, herbaceous production has declined, and peak production has shifted to early spring through early summer. Plant diversity is also reduced. However, infiltration and runoff remain much the same.

State 5
Go-Back

This state is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T6A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this state is overgrazing with extended drought or human disturbance (e.g. off-road vehicle use). This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which may be noxious weeds and need control. Over time, the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass will likely predominate.

Community 5.1
Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics

This is highly variable plant community depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T6A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this state is overgrazing with extended drought or human disturbance (e.g. off-road vehicle use). This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which may be noxious weeds and need control. Over time, the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass will likely predominate.

State 6
Cropland State

Cropland State results from planting and production of annual crops. This plant community is most commonly associated with cropped fields. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of tillage induced compaction, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques..

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

This is the transition from the State 1: Reference State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State due to the introduction and establishment of exotic cool-season grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass. This transition was probably inevitable and corresponded to a decline in native warm-season and cool-season grasses. This transition may have been exacerbated by chronic season-long or heavy late season grazing. Complete rest from grazing and suppression of fire could also have hastened the transition. The threshold between states was crossed when Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, crested wheatgrass, or other exotic species became established on the site.

Constraints to recovery. Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

This transition from the State 2: Native/Invaded to State 3: Wooded State generally occurs during extended periods of no use or very light grazing and no fire. Complete rest from grazing and elimination of fire are the two major contributors to this transition. Removal of these two disturbances shifts the competitive advantage within the herbaceous component of the plant community to exotic species such as Kentucky bluegrass and leafy spurge. The lack of repeated fire events permits shrubs such as smooth sumac, poison ivy, and/or chokecherry to expand from the edges of oak mottes into the adjacent herbaceous communities. Once established, this facilitates further expansion of the tree and shrub components. As shrub and tree canopy cover increases, the potential for disturbance by fire decreases due to lack of rime fuel and reduction of fire behavior.

Constraints to recovery. Labor and financial cost of removal/control of woody species either through repeated prescribed burns, mechanical and/or chemical treatment.

Context dependence. Societal norms have accepted woody invasion as positive for wildlife habitat, carbon sequestration, aesthetics, etc. Livestock managers may not understand the loss of production due to woody invasion and loss of native grass species. Wildlife managers may need to manage woody habitat for exotic wildlife species such as ring-necked pheasants instead of sharp-tailed grouse or other grassland nesting birds which are intolerant to woody species invasion.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

The Transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 4: Invaded State occurs with heavy season-long grazing or perhaps non-use. It can also occur with extended periods of no use and no fire. Leafy spurge is a frequent invader of the site. As leafy spurge becomes established on the site, it limits use by livestock and changes the micro-climate at the soil surface, facilitating a shift from the native herbaceous species to a community dominated by introduced grass and forb species. It is speculated the application of certain herbicides in an effort to control leafy spurge may facilitate an increase in Kentucky bluegrass.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

This restoration pathway from State 3: Wooded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with brush control. Initial use of herbicides and/or mechanical brush control to reduce smooth sumac and other shrubs will permit adequate fine fuel loads to establish, permitting the application of prescribed fire to further control sprouting shrubs species. However, depending upon level of remnant native grasses and forbs, a range planting may also be necessary to re-establish the herbaceous plant community. A combination of mechanical brush management, chemical treatment, and prescribed burning is necessary to remove the woody vegetation and, if necessary, to prepare the seedbed for a successful range planting. Once this is accomplished, it may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because many of the shrubs (e.g. western snowberry) sprout profusely following one burn. After establishment of the native plant species, management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses. Due to the resprouting nature of woody species within MLRA 56 repeated treatments will be necessary for a transition from this state. Following the removal of woody species, other restoration practices such as range planting, prescribed burning, and prescribed grazing may be necessary to complete the restoration. The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will help suppress any exotic cool-season grasses on the site.

Context dependence. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fuel type (herbaceous vs. shrub vs. tree), fine fuel amount and orientation ; (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on woody and exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses). The method of brush management will be site specific but generally the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control or biological control, either singularly or in combination, in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species. A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique. Management (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species. Adding non-native species can impact the above and below ground biota. Some evidence suggests the addition of exotic legumes to the seeding mixture may favor exotic cool-season grass expansion/invasion.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

This transition from State 3: Wooded State to State 4: Invaded State can be accomplished with brush control. Initial use of herbicides and/or mechanical brush control to reduce smooth sumac and other shrubs will permit adequate fine fuel loads to establish, permitting the application of prescribed fire to further control sprouting shrubs species.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 2

This restoration pathway from State 4: Invaded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State may be accomplished with the implementation of long-term prescribed grazing and prescribed burning, assuming there is an adequate component of native grasses to respond to the treatments. Both prescribed grazing and prescribed burning are likely necessary to successfully initiate this restoration pathway, the success of which depends upon the presence of a remnant population of native grasses in Community Phase 4.1. That remnant population, however, may not be readily apparent without close inspection. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because many of the shrubs (e.g. western snowberry) sprout profusely following one burn. Early season prescribed burns have been successful; however, fall burning may also be an effective technique. The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage from the exotic cool-season grasses to the native cool-season grasses.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 3

This Transition from State 4: Invaded State to State 3: Wooded State occurs during periods of no use and no fire. This enables shrubs such as smooth sumac and poison ivy to expand from the edges of bur oak mottes into the adjacent herbaceous communities. Once established, this facilitates further expansion of the tree and shrub components. As shrub and tree canopy cover increases, the potential for disturbance by fire decreases due to lack of fine fuels and reduction in fire behavior.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 2

This Restoration from State 5: Go-Back State to State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with a successful range planting. Following seeding, prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, haying, or use of herbicides will generally be necessary to achieve the desired result and control any noxious weeds. It may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. After establishment of the native plant species, prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources; management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses.

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 4

A failed range planting and/or secondary succession will lead to State 3: Invaded State.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 5

T6A transitional pathway is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance.