State 1
Reference State

This state represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site prior to European influence. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included frequent fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing, coupled with weather events, dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. These factors likely caused the community to shift both spatially and temporally between two plant communities. One community was predominantly composed of mid statured cool-season grasses and one was predominantly composed of the more grazing and drought tolerant warm-season and cool-season grasses.

Characteristics and indicators. (i.e. characteristics and indicators that can be used to distinguish this state from others). Because of changes in disturbances and other environmental factors (particularly the widespread occurrence of exotic species), the Reference State is considered to no longer exist.

Resilience management. (i.e. management strategies that will sustain a state and prevent a transition). If intact, the reference state should probably be managed with current disturbance regimes which has permitted the site to remain in reference condition as well as maintaining the quality and integrity of associated ecological sites. Maintenance of the reference condition is contingent upon a monitoring protocol to guide management.

Community 1.1
Needlegrass-Western Wheatgrass (Hesperostipa spp., Nasella viridula-Pascopyrum smithii)

This community phase was historically the most dominant both temporally and spatially. Major grasses were needle and thread, porcupinegrass, green needlegrass, western wheatgrass, and other cool-season as well as warm-season grasses including blue grama and little bluestem. The community phase may also be characterized by a diverse forb component. Common forbs often included prairie clovers, goldenrods, common yarrow, dotted blazing star, upright prairie coneflower, and silverleaf Indian breadroot. Common shrubs included leadplant, prairie sagewort, prairie rose, spinystar, and western snowberry. Annual production of this community phase may have varied from around 1400-2800 pounds per acre with graminoids, forbs, and shrubs contributing 85%, 10%, and 5% of the total production respectively. Community Phase 1.1 is considered the Reference Plant Community upon which most interpretations are based and is further described in the “Plant Community Composition and Group Annual Production” portion of this ecological site description.

Community 1.2
Blue Grama/Sedge/Prairie Sagewort (Bouteloua gracilis/Carex spp./Artemisia frigida)

Compared to Community Phase 1.1, this Community Phase may be characterized by an increase in the more drought and/or grazing tolerant graminoids such as blue grama and upland sedges (e.g. threadleaf sedge). Prairie sagewort was a conspicuous component of the community. There was also a corresponding decrease in the taller and less grazing tolerant grasses such as the needlegrasses and western wheatgrass.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

This Community Phase Pathway 1.1 to 1.2 occurred with long-term drought with or without heavy long-term grazing. This resulted in a marked increase in blue grama, upland sedges (e.g. threadleaf sedge), and prairie sagewort along with a corresponding decrease in the needlegrasses and western wheatgrass. Community Phase 1.2: Blue Grama/Sedge/Prairie Sagewort (Bouteloua gracilis/Carex spp./Artemisia frigida) Compared to Community Phase 1.1, this Community Phase may be characterized by an increase in the more

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

This Community Phase Pathway 1.2 to 1.1 occurred with a return to average growing conditions and reduced grazing pressure resulting in an increase in the needlegrasses and western wheatgrass with a corresponding decrease in blue grama, upland sedges (e.g. threadleaf sedge), and prairie sagewort.

State 2
Native/Invaded State

This state is similar to State 1: Reference State but has now been colonized by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or perhaps crested wheatgrass which are now present in small amounts. Although the state is still dominated by native grasses, an increase in these exotic cool-season grasses can be expected. Exotic forbs, including noxious weeds Canada thistle, absinthium (aka wormwood), and spotted knapweed may also colonize the site. These exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. These exotic cool-season grasses have also been particularly and consistently invasive under extended periods of no use and no fire. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 3: Invaded State should be expected. A lack of fire and prescribed grazing results in a decline in desirable grasses and forbs for livestock and wildlife with an increase in less desirable grasses and forbs. Annual production of this state can be quite variable, in large part due to the amount of exotic cool-season grasses. Annual production, however, may range from around 900-2300 pounds per acre.

Characteristics and indicators. The presence of trace amounts of exotic cool-season grasses indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2. The presence of exotic biennial or perennial leguminous forbs (i.e. sweet clover, black medic) may not, on their own, indicate a transition from State 1 to State 2 but may facilitate that transition.

Resilience management. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. Grazing management should be applied that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. This may include: (1) grazing when exotic cool-season grasses are actively growing and native cool-season grasses are dormant; (2) applying proper deferment periods allowing native grasses to recover and maintain or improve vigor; (3) adjusting overall grazing intensity to reduce excessive plant litter (above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 – see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet); (4) incorporating early heavy spring utilization which focuses grazing pressure on exotic cool-season grasses and reduces plant litter provided that livestock are moved when grazing selection shifts from exotic cool-season grasses to native grasses. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that maintains or enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. Prescribed burns should be applied as needed to adequately reduce/remove excessive plant litter and maintain the competitive advantage for native species. Timing of prescribed burns (spring vs. summer vs. fall) should be adjusted to account for differences in annual growing conditions and applied during windows of opportunity to best shift the competitive advantage to the native species.

Community 2.1
Needlegrass-Western Wheatgrass (Hesperostipa spp., Nasella viridula-Pascopyrum smithii)

This Community Phase is similar to Community Phase 1.1 but has now been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or perhaps crested wheatgrass. However, these exotics are present in smaller amounts with the community still dominated by native grasses.

Community 2.2
Blue Grama/Forbs/Prairie Sagewort (Bouteloua gracilis/Forb/Artemisia frigida)

This Community Phase is similar to Community Phase 1.2 but has now been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass which are now present in small amounts. Compared to Community Phase 2.1 there has been a marked increase in blue grama and forbs coupled with a noticeable decline in the needlegrasses and western wheatgrass. Forbs and shrubs often showing an increase include curlycup gumweed, common yarrow, silverleaf Indian breadroot, field sagewort, Flodman’s thistle, prairie sagewort, and prairie rose. This community phase is often dispersed throughout a pasture in an overgrazed/undergrazed pattern, typically referred to as patch grazing. Some overgrazed areas will exhibit the impacts of heavy use, while the ungrazed areas will have a build-up of litter and increased plant decadence. This is a typical pattern found in properly stocked pastures grazed season long. As a result, Kentucky bluegrass tends to increase more in the undergrazed areas while the more grazing tolerant short statured species, such as blue grama and sedges, increase in the heavily grazed areas. If present, Kentucky bluegrass may increase under heavy grazing. This Community Phase is approaching the threshold leading to a transition to State 3: Invaded State. As a result, it is an “at risk” community. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 3: Invaded State should be expected.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Community Phase Pathway 2.1 to 2.2 occurs with long-term drought with or without heavy long-term grazing. This results in a marked increase in blue grama, forbs, and prairie sagewort with a corresponding decrease in the needlegrasses and western wheatgrass.

Context dependence. Variations in growing conditions (e.g. cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

This Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.1 occurs with long-term prescribed grazing and prescribed burning. This results in a marked increase in the needlegrasses and western wheatgrass and a corresponding decrease in blue grama, forbs, and prairie sagewort.

State 3
Invaded State

This state is the result of invasion and dominance by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, or perhaps crested wheatgrass. These exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. Common native forbs and shrubs often include curlycup gumweed, white heath aster, goldenrods, Flodman’s thistle, and common yarrow, along with prairie sagewort, and prairie rose. Exotic forbs (e.g. sweetclover, herb sophia) may also be present, including some noxious weeds (e.g. Canada thistle, absinthium, leavy spurge, spotted knapweed). Once the state is well established, prescribed burning and prescribed grazing techniques have been largely ineffective in suppressing or eliminating the exotic cool-season grasses, even though some short-term reductions may appear successful. Annual production of this state may vary widely, in part due to variations in the extent of invasion by exotic cool-season grasses. However, annual production may be in the range of 700-2700 pounds per acre with the exotic cool-season grasses contributing up to 70% or more of the total production.

Characteristics and indicators. This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.

Resilience management. Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning, and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g. western snowberry) populations.

Community 3.1
Exotic Grasses/Forbs

This community phase is dominated by the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or perhaps crested wheatgrass. Excessive accumulation of plant litter may also be present, particularly when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass. Associated native forbs and shrubs often include curlycup gumweed, white heath aster, goldenrods, Flodman’s thistle, and common yarrow, along with prairie sagewort, and prairie rose. Exotic forbs (e.g. sweetclover, herb sophia) may also be present, including some noxious weeds (e.g. Canada thistle, absinthium, leafy spurge). The longer this community phase exists the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, or the other exotic cool-season grasses are typically short-lived.

State 4
Go-Back State

This state is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T5A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this state is plant succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which may be noxious weeds needing control (e.g. leafy spurge, Canada thistle). Over time, however, the site will likely become dominated by the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and/or quackgrass.

Characteristics and indicators. Tillage has destroyed the native plant community, altered soil structure and biology, reduced soil organic matter, and resulted in the formation of a tillage induced compaction layer which is restrictive to root growth. Noxious weeds, if present, will need to be managed.

Community 4.1
Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics

This community phase is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T5A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this phase is secondary succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, including noxious weeds which may need control (e.g. absinthium, Canada thistle). Over time, however, the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and/or quackgrass will predominate.

State 5
Cropland State

Cropland State results from planting and production of annual crops. This plant community is most commonly associated with cropped fields. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of tillage induced compaction, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques..

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

This is the transition from the State 1: Reference State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State due to the introduction and establishment of exotic cool-season grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or crested wheatgrass. This transition was probably inevitable and corresponded to a decline in native warm-season and cool-season grasses. This transition may have been exacerbated by chronic season-long or heavy late season grazing. Complete rest from grazing and suppression of fire could also have hastened this transition. The threshold between states was crossed when Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, quackgrass, crested wheatgrass, or other exotic species became established on the site.

Constraints to recovery. (i.e. variables or processes that preclude recovery of the former state). Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

This Transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 3: Invaded State often results from extended periods of no use or very light grazing with no fire but can also occur under other management. Studies indicate that a threshold may exist in this transition when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30% of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40% of the plant community composition. Similar thresholds may exist for smooth brome, quackgrass, and crested wheatgrass.

Constraints to recovery. Variations in growing conditions (e.g. cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

This restoration pathway from the State 3: Invaded State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State may result from the implementation of long-term prescribed grazing and prescribed burning, assuming there is an adequate component of native grasses to respond to the treatments. Both prescribed grazing and prescribed burning are likely necessary to successfully initiate this restoration pathway, the success of which depends upon the presence of a remnant population of native grasses in Community Phase 3.1. That remnant population, however, may not be readily apparent without close inspection. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because many of the shrubs (e.g. western snowberry) sprout profusely following one burn. Early season prescribed burns have been successful; however, fall burning may also be an effective technique. The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage from the exotic cool-season grasses to the native cool-season grasses

Context dependence. Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species. Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g. September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation (e.g. “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses).

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 2

This Restoration Pathway from State 4: Go-Back State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with a successful range planting. Following planting, prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, haying, or use of herbicides will generally be necessary to achieve the desired result and control any noxious weeds. It may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. After establishment of the native plant species, prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources; management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses.

Context dependence. A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique. Management (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species. Adding non-native species can impact the above and below ground biota. Elevated soil nitrogen levels have been shown to benefit smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass more than some native grasses. As a result, fertilization, exotic legumes in the seeding mix, and other techniques that increase soil nitrogen may promote smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass invasion. The method or methods of herbaceous weed treatment will be site specific to each situation but, generally, the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control, or biological control - either singularly or in combination - in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 3

A failed range planting and/or secondary succession will lead to State 3: Invaded State.

Context dependence. Failed range plantings can result from many causes, both singularly and in combination, including: drought, poor seedbed preparation, improper seeding methods, seeded species not adapted to the site, insufficient weed control, herbicide carryover, poor seed quality (purity & germination), improper management.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 4

This transition from any plant community to State 4: Go-Back State. It is most commonly associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of range planting, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of a tillage induced compacted layer, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.