Wet Meadow
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
Select a state
Management practices/drivers
Select a transition or restoration pathway
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Transition T1A
Colonization by exotic species
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Restoration pathway R2A
Mechanical brush control and prescribed burning
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Transition T2A
No use and no fire
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Transition T2B
Increase and extent of exotic species
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Restoration pathway R3A
Brush control, perhaps followed by range planting
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Restoration pathway R4A
Prescribed burning and prescribed grazing
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Transition T4A
No use and no fire
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Restoration pathway R5A
Successful range planting
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Restoration pathway R5B
Failed range planting
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Transition T6A
Cessation of annual cropping
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No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
Select a state
Description
This state is typically dominated by cool-season grass-likes and grasses with minor amounts of warm-season grasses in association with a variety of forbs and a few scattered and small shrubs, particularly willows. It represented the natural range of variability that dominates the dynamics of this ecological site prior to European influence. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included frequent fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. These factors cause the community to shift both spatially and temporally between three community phases.
Today the primary disturbance is a lack of fire, physical impacts of livestock grazing, mechanical harvest, and water level fluctuations including hydrological manipulations. In some instances, the mechanical harvest (haying) of these sites has similar impacts on the willows as fire, limiting their size and extent within the plant community. Because of the changes in disturbances, invasion by exotic species, and other factors, the reference state is becoming increasingly rare, but may be encountered within tracts of native vegetation.
Small and scattered willows (e.g. sandbar, Bebb), bog, birch, and other shrubs may be present in communities of this state, particularly in the eastern portions of this MLRA under extended periods of no use and no fire management. Unless brush control methods are implemented (e.g. prescribed burning intervals of 3-5 years), the willows may become dominant. Left unchecked, this may lead to State 2: Native/Invaded State (e.g. Community Phases 2.1 or 2.3) and perhaps on to State 3: Wooded State.
Characteristics and indicators
(i.e. Characteristics and indicators that can be used to distinguish this state from others). Because of changes in disturbances and other environmental factors (particularly the widespread occurrence of exotic species), the Reference State is considered to no longer exist.
Resilience management
(i.e. management strategies that will sustain a state and prevent a transition). If intact, the reference state should probably be managed with current disturbance regimes which has permitted the site to remain in reference condition as well as maintaining the quality and integrity of associated ecological sites. Maintenance of the reference state is contingent upon a monitoring protocol to guide management.
Submodel
Description
This state is similar to State 1: Reference State but has now been colonized by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or redtop which are now present in small amounts. Field sowthistle, leafy spurge, and Canada thistle are also known to invade the site. Although the state is still dominated by native grasses, an increase in these exotic cool-season grasses can be expected.
The exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State.
These exotic cool-season grasses have been particularly and consistently invasive under extended periods of no-use and no fire. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses the transition to State 3: Invaded State should be expected.
Small and scattered willows (e.g. sandbar, Bebb) may also be present, particularly under extended periods of no use and no fire management. Unless brush control methods are implemented (e.g. prescribed burning of 3-5 year intervals), the willows may become invasive, and the eventual transition to State 3: Wooded State can be expected (T2A).
Annual production of this state can be quite variable, in large part due to the amount of exotic cool-season grasses. Annual production may, however, range from 4600-5800 pounds per acre.
Characteristics and indicators
The presence of trace amounts of exotic cool-season grasses indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2. The presence of exotic biennial or perennial leguminous forbs (i.e. sweet clover, black medic) may not, on their own, indicate a transition from State 1 to State 2 but may facilitate that transition.
Resilience management
To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective.
Grazing management should be applied that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. This may include: (1) grazing when exotic cool-season grasses are actively growing and native cool-season grasses are dormant; (2) applying proper deferment periods allowing native grasses to recover and maintain or improve vigor; (3) adjusting overall grazing intensity to reduce excessive plant litter (above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 – see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet); (4) incorporating early heavy spring utilization which focuses grazing pressure on exotic cool-season grasses and reduces plant litter provided that livestock are moved when grazing selection shifts from exotic cool-season grasses to native grasses.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that maintains or enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. Prescribed burns should be applied as needed to adequately reduce/remove excessive plant litter and maintain the competitive advantage for native species. Timing of prescribed burns (spring vs. summer vs. fall) should be adjusted to account for differences in annual growing conditions and applied during windows of opportunity to best shift the competitive advantage to the native species.
Submodel
Description
This state is characterized by a dominance (both visually and in production) of willow species and a greatly reduced herbaceous understory. Remnant sedges still dominate the herbaceous portion of the state but shade tolerant invasives, such as Kentucky bluegrass and/or redtop, may also be present.
Characteristics and indicators
As shrubs increase in size and density, canopy cover increases which alters micro-climate and reduces fine fuel amounts resulting in reduced fire intensity and frequency. Diversity and production of herbaceous understory is reduced as canopy cover increases.
Submodel
Description
This state is the result of invasion and dominance by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, redtop, and/or quackgrass. Canada thistle, field sowthistle, leafy spurge, and exotic strains or hybrids of reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail are also known to invade the site. The exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. Common forbs often include goldenrod, sunflower, and Indianhemp. Willows and white meadowsweet may also be present. Once the state is well established, prescribed burning and grazing techniques have been largely ineffective in suppressing or eliminating these three species even though some short-term reductions may appear successful.
Annual production of this state may vary widely, in part due to variations in the extent of invasion by exotic cool-season grasses
Characteristics and indicators
This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.
Resilience management
Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning, and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g. western snowberry) populations.
Submodel
Description
This state is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T6A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this state is plant succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which may be noxious weeds and need control. Over time the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or redtop will likely predominate.
Submodel
Description
Cropland State results from planting and production of annual crops. This plant community is most commonly associated with cropped fields. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of tillage induced compaction, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques..
Mechanism
This is the transition from the State 1: Reference State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State. This is often due to the introduction and establishment of exotic cool-season grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or redtop. Canada thistle and field sowthistle are also known to invade the site. This transition is probably inevitable and corresponds to a decline in native warm-season and cool-season grasses. The threshold between states is crossed when exotic species became established on the site.
This transition may be exacerbated by chronic season-long or heavy late season grazing. Extended periods of no use and no fire is often associated with the a marked increase in willows which may become dominant. If no action is taken to limit the increase in willows, a further transition to State 3: Wooded State may be expected.
Constraints to recovery
Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.
Mechanism
This is the restoration from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 1: Reference State may be accomplished through the implementation of mechanical brush control and prescribed burning, sediment removal, successful buffe or upland restoration.
In the absence of invasive species, prescribed burning in combination with mechanical treatment and/or herbicide treatment, would reduce the willow component to Reference State levels. This restoration pathway is not applicable when exotic invasive species are present in the plant community or the surrounding upland has been previously or is currently cropped.
Context dependence
Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species.
Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g. September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation (e.g. “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses).
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
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Brush Management |
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Prescribed Burning |
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Herbaceous Weed Control |
Mechanism
This transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 3: Wooded State occurs during extended periods of no use and no fire. This enables the willows (e.g. sandbar, Bebb) to increase in the size and extent. The transition may be facilitated by periods of above average precipitation.
Sporadic attempts to shift the plant community back to the Reference State through the use of prescribed burning and/or mechanical treatment causes the willow to re-sprout with multiple stems and, ultimately, may hasten the transition.
Experience would indicate the threshold occurs when willows attain a height of greater than 30 inches and become multi-stemmed. At this point, the willows begin to suppress herbaceous production and limit fire intensity. If a fire does occur, it does not generate adequate heat to kill the willow or, if it top-kills the willow, re-sprouting results in an even thicker stand.
Constraints to recovery
Labor and financial cost of removal/control of woody species either through repeated prescribed burns, mechanical and/or chemical treatment.
Context dependence
Societal norms have accepted woody invasion as positive for wildlife habitat, carbon sequestration, aesthetics, etc. Livestock managers may not understand the loss of production due to woody invasion and loss of native grass species. Wildlife managers may need to manage woody habitat for exotic wildlife species such as ring-necked pheasants instead of sharp-tailed grouse or other grassland nesting birds intolerant to woody species invasion.
Mechanism
This transition from the State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 4: Invaded State generally occurs as exotic species expand and begin to dominate the site. This is often due to exotic cool-season grasses such as quackgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, redtop, and/or smooth brome. However, hybrid cattail, exotic strains and hybrids of reed canarygrass, Canada thistle, field sowthistle, and leafy spurge are also known to invade the site.
Studies indicate that a threshold may exist in this transition when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30% of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40% of the plant community composition. Similar thresholds may exist for other exotic species. This transition may occur under a wide range of managerial conditions ranging from non-use and no fire to heavy season-long grazing (primarily Kentucky bluegrass).
Constraints to recovery
Variations in growing conditions (e.g. cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations.
Mechanism
This restoration pathway from State 3: Wooded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with brush control. Initial use of herbicides and/or mechanical brush control to reduce willows will permit adequate fine fuel loads to establish, permitting the application of prescribed fire to further control sprouting. However, depending upon level of remnant native grasses and forbs, a range planting may also be necessary to re-establish the herbaceous plant community.
A combination of mechanical brush management, chemical treatment, and prescribed burning is necessary to remove the willows and, if necessary, to prepare the seedbed for a successful range planting. Once this is accomplished, it may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because of sprouting of the willows following one burn. After establishment of the native plant species, management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses. Due to the resprouting nature of willows, repeated treatments may be necessary to complete the restoration.
Following the removal of woody species, other restoration practices such as range planting, prescribed burning, and prescribed grazing may be necessary to complete the restoration. The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will help suppress any exotic cool-season grasses on the site.
Context dependence
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fuel type (herbaceous vs. shrub vs. tree), fine fuel amount and orientation ; (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on woody and exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses).
The method of brush management will be site specific but generally the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control or biological control, either singularly or in combination, in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species.
A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique. Management (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species. Adding non-native species can impact the above and below ground biota. Some evidence suggests the addition of exotic legumes to the seeding mixture may favor exotic cool-season grass expansion/invasion.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
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Herbaceous Weed Control |
Mechanism
This restoration pathway from State 4: Invaded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State may be accomplished with the implementation of long-term prescribed grazing and prescribed burning, assuming there is an adequate component of native grasses to respond to the treatments. Successful restoration along Restoration Pathway R4A is dependent upon management of the buffer or adjacent upland eliminating sedimentation and nutrient loading to the Wet Meadow ecological site and limiting invasive species movement from the adjacent upland sites.
Both prescribed grazing and prescribed burning are likely necessary to successfully initiate this restoration pathway, the success of which depends upon the presence of a remnant population of native grasses in Community Phase 4.1. That remnant population, however, may not be readily apparent without close inspection. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because thew willows will resprout following one burn. Early season prescribed burns have been successful; however, fall burning may also be an effective technique.
The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage from the exotic cool-season grasses to the native cool-season grasses.
Context dependence
Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species.
Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g. September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation (e.g. “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses).
The longer this community phase exists, the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of Kentucky bluegrass or smooth brome are typically short-lived.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
|
|
Herbaceous Weed Control |
Mechanism
This transition from State 4: Invaded State to State 3: Wooded State is characterized by extended periods of no use and no fire. This enables willows (e.g. sandbar, Bebb) to increase in density and size, and eventually dominate the vegetation of the site.
Mechanism
This restoration from State 5: Go-back State to State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with a successful range planting. Following seeding, prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, haying, or use of herbicides will generally be necessary to achieve the desired result and control any noxious weeds.
It may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. After establishment of the native plant species, prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources, and management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses.
Mechanism
A failed range planting and/or secondary succession will lead to State 4: Invaded State.
Mechanism
This transition from any plant community to State 5: Go-Back State. Most commonly, it is associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of restoration efforts, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history, such as development of a tillage induced compacted layer, erosion, fertility (degree of eutrophication), and sedimentation herbicide/pesticide carryover. Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.
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The Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.