State 1
Reference

This state is typically dominated by cool-season grass-likes and grasses with minor amounts of warm-season grasses in association with a variety of forbs and a few scattered and small shrubs, particularly willows. It represented the natural range of variability that dominates the dynamics of this ecological site prior to European influence. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included frequent fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. These factors cause the community to shift both spatially and temporally between three community phases. Today the primary disturbance is a lack of fire, physical impacts of livestock grazing, mechanical harvest, and water level fluctuations including hydrological manipulations. In some instances, the mechanical harvest (haying) of these sites has similar impacts on the willows as fire, limiting their size and extent within the plant community. Because of the changes in disturbances, invasion by exotic species, and other factors, the reference state is becoming increasingly rare, but may be encountered within tracts of native vegetation. Small and scattered willows (e.g. sandbar, Bebb), bog, birch, and other shrubs may be present in communities of this state, particularly in the eastern portions of this MLRA under extended periods of no use and no fire management. Unless brush control methods are implemented (e.g. prescribed burning intervals of 3-5 years), the willows may become dominant. Left unchecked, this may lead to State 2: Native/Invaded State (e.g. Community Phases 2.1 or 2.3) and perhaps on to State 3: Wooded State.

Characteristics and indicators. (i.e. Characteristics and indicators that can be used to distinguish this state from others). Because of changes in disturbances and other environmental factors (particularly the widespread occurrence of exotic species), the Reference State is considered to no longer exist.

Resilience management. (i.e. management strategies that will sustain a state and prevent a transition). If intact, the reference state should probably be managed with current disturbance regimes which has permitted the site to remain in reference condition as well as maintaining the quality and integrity of associated ecological sites. Maintenance of the reference state is contingent upon a monitoring protocol to guide management.

Community 1.1
Sedge/Northern Reedgrass (Carex spp./Calamagrostis stricta)

This community evolved with grazing by large herbivores, occasional prairie fires, and relatively frequent ponding events; it can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning and, sometimes, on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Woolly sedge is typically the dominant grass-like species, while northern reedgrass is the dominant grass. A variety of sedges and rushes occur throughout this community as well as switchgrass and fowl bluegrass. Key forbs include rough bugleweed, western dock, Canada germander, and mints. Small scattered willows, bog birch, and perhaps other shrubs are also often present. This plant community phase is diverse, stable, and productive. The high water table/shallow ponding (ponding < 18 inches) supplies much of the moisture for plant growth. The diversity in plant species allows for the variability of both the fluctuations of water table and reoccurring ponding. Annual production will vary from about 4200-6200 pounds per acre with grasses and grass-likes, forbs, and shrubs contributing about 80%, 15%, and 5% respectively. This community represents the plant community phase upon which interpretations are primarily based and is described in the “Plant Community Composition and Group Annual Production” portion of this ecological site description.

Community 1.2
Prairie Cordgrass-Switchgrass/Forbs (Spartina pectinata-Panicum virgatum/Forbs)

This plant community phase is occurs during prolonged drought, and is characterized by a shift from the mid-statured grass-likes and grasses such as woolly sedge and Northern reedgrass to species which would more often be associated with slightly drier sites (i.e. Subirrigated ecological site) such as prairie cordgrass, switchgrass, and mat muhly. Spikerush and mountain rush are the dominant grass-likes. Common forbs include blackeyed Susan, goldenrods, Canada anemone, ragworts and swamp verbena. Small scattered willows, bog birch, and other shrubs may also be present.

Community 1.3
Cattail/Rushes/Sedges (Typha spp./Schoenoplectus spp./Carex spp.)

This plant community phase is characterized by an increase in the more flood tolerant species such as cattails and rushes. Small areas of open water may be present. Dominant species would include broadleaf cattail, common threesquare, softstem bulrush, common spikerush, duckweed, knotweed, and bladderwort. Woolly sedge and northern reedgrass are still present but in reduced amounts scattered across the site. Small and scattered willows (e.g. sandbar willow), bog birch, and perhaps other shrubs may also be present in this community, particularly under extended periods of no use and no fire management. Unless brush control techniques are implemented (e.g. burn interval of 3-5 years), the willows may become dominant. Left unchecked, this may lead to State 3: Wooded State via State 2: Native/Invaded State (Community Phases 2.1 or 2.3).

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Community Phase Pathway 1.1 to 1.2 occurs during prolonged drought leading to a drop in the water table, resulting in a marked increase in spikerush and foxtail barley along with a corresponding decrease in sedges and northern reedgrass.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Community Phase Pathway 1.1 to 1.3 occurs during prolonged periods of above average precipitation, leading to a rise in the water table and increased ponding frequency and duration. This results in a marked decrease in sedges and northern reedgrass along with a corresponding increase in cattail, rushes, and willows.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Community Phase Pathway 1.2 to 1.1 occurs with a return to average precipitation and historic disturbance regime leading a rise in the water table. This results in a marked increase in sedges and northern reedgrass along with a corresponding decrease in prairie cordgrass and switchgrass.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Community Phase Pathway 1.3 to 1.1 occurs with the return to average (or below) precipitation and historic disturbance regime over several years leading to a drop in the water table and decreased ponding duration and frequency. As a result, the community shifts from cattails, rushes, and sedges to sedges and northern reedgrass.

State 2
Native/Invaded

This state is similar to State 1: Reference State but has now been colonized by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or redtop which are now present in small amounts. Field sowthistle, leafy spurge, and Canada thistle are also known to invade the site. Although the state is still dominated by native grasses, an increase in these exotic cool-season grasses can be expected. The exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. These exotic cool-season grasses have been particularly and consistently invasive under extended periods of no-use and no fire. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses the transition to State 3: Invaded State should be expected. Small and scattered willows (e.g. sandbar, Bebb) may also be present, particularly under extended periods of no use and no fire management. Unless brush control methods are implemented (e.g. prescribed burning of 3-5 year intervals), the willows may become invasive, and the eventual transition to State 3: Wooded State can be expected (T2A). Annual production of this state can be quite variable, in large part due to the amount of exotic cool-season grasses. Annual production may, however, range from 4600-5800 pounds per acre.

Characteristics and indicators. The presence of trace amounts of exotic cool-season grasses indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2. The presence of exotic biennial or perennial leguminous forbs (i.e. sweet clover, black medic) may not, on their own, indicate a transition from State 1 to State 2 but may facilitate that transition.

Resilience management. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. Grazing management should be applied that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. This may include: (1) grazing when exotic cool-season grasses are actively growing and native cool-season grasses are dormant; (2) applying proper deferment periods allowing native grasses to recover and maintain or improve vigor; (3) adjusting overall grazing intensity to reduce excessive plant litter (above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 – see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet); (4) incorporating early heavy spring utilization which focuses grazing pressure on exotic cool-season grasses and reduces plant litter provided that livestock are moved when grazing selection shifts from exotic cool-season grasses to native grasses. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that maintains or enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. Prescribed burns should be applied as needed to adequately reduce/remove excessive plant litter and maintain the competitive advantage for native species. Timing of prescribed burns (spring vs. summer vs. fall) should be adjusted to account for differences in annual growing conditions and applied during windows of opportunity to best shift the competitive advantage to the native species.

Community 2.1
Sedge/Northern Reedgrass/Willow (Carex spp./Calamagrostis stricta/Salix spp.)

This Community Phase is similar to Community Phase 1.1 but has been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, redtop, and/or quackgrass. However, these exotics are present in smaller amounts with the community still dominated by native grasses. Field sowthistle, leafy spurge, and Canada thistle are also known to invade the site. Small and scattered willows (e.g. sandbar willow) are also present, particularly under non-use and no fire management. Unless a brush control program is implemented (e.g. prescribed burning at 3-5 year intervals), the willows may become invasive, eventually leading to the transition to State 3: Wooded State (T2A). Annual production can be quite variable, in part due to variations in the invasion by exotic cool-season grasses. However, annual production may be in the range of 4600-5800 pounds per acre.

Community 2.2
Spikerush/Foxtail Barley/Sedge (Eleocharis spp./Hordeum jubatum/Carex spp.)

Increased grazing pressure and associated disturbances (e.g. trampling) have resulted in increased bare ground compared to Community Phase 2.1. The community can be characterized by an increase in disturbance tolerant species such as spikerush, foxtail barley, muhly, Mountain rush, curly dock, verbena and annual forbs. Sedges and northern reedgrass are still present but in reduced amounts. Willows, if present, may become more conspicuous. Redtop, if present, will increase in this phase.

Community 2.3
Cattail/Rushes/Willow (Typha spp./Schoenoplectus spp./Carex spp.)

This plant community phase is characterized by an increase in the more flood tolerant species such as cattails and rushes. Dominant species would include broadleaf cattail, American threesquare, softstem bulrush, common spikerush, duckweed, knotweed, and bladderwort. Exotic species such as narrowleaf cattail and hybrid cattail are also present. Woolly sedge and northern reedgrass are still present but in reduced amounts scattered across the site. Small areas of open water may also be present. Small and scattered willows (e.g. sandbar, Bebb) are often present, particularly under no use and no fire management. Unless a brush control program is implemented (e.g. prescribed burning at 3-5 year intervals), the willows may become invasive, eventually leading to the transition to State 3: Wooded State (T2A).

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Community Phase Pathway 2.1 to 2.2 occurs during prolonged drought and increased grazing pressure and associated disturbances. This lowers the seasonal water table, potentially shifting the plant community to those species more often associated with a Subirrigated ecological site and may increase soil salinity.” This shift may be further compounded by an increase in grazing intensity and frequency due to the decline in available forage on adjacent upland sites. The shift in the plant community is driven as much by the actual physical impact of the grazing animals (e.g. root shearing, trampling) as it is from the grazing itself. This pathway can also be initiated on smaller areas by the physical disturbance of motorized vehicle traffic or concentrated livestock activities such as that associated with dugouts, creep feeders, and the like.

Pathway 2.1B
Community 2.1 to 2.3

Community Phase Pathway 2.1 to 2.3 occurs during prolonged periods of above average which raises the water table and increases ponding frequency and duration. This shifts the plant community to the more flood tolerant species such as cattails, rushes, and willows.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.1 occurs with the return to average precipitation and historic disturbance regime. This leads to a marked increase in sedge, northern reedgrass, and willow with a corresponding decrease in spikerush and foxtail barley.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1

Community Phase Pathway 2.3 to 2.1 occurs with the return to average (or below) precipitation and disturbance regime. Reduced ponding duration and frequency shifts the plant community from cattails, rushes, and willows to sedges, northern reedgrass, and willows. An increase in grazing and fire frequency can lead to greater declines in cattails. This pathway is initiated by a return to normal or below normal precipitation regime over a period of several years. Reduced ponding duration and frequency shifts the plant community to sedge/ northern reedgrass. Increased fire along with grazing will negatively impact cattails, favoring sedge/northern reedgrass.

State 3
Wooded

This state is characterized by a dominance (both visually and in production) of willow species and a greatly reduced herbaceous understory. Remnant sedges still dominate the herbaceous portion of the state but shade tolerant invasives, such as Kentucky bluegrass and/or redtop, may also be present.

Characteristics and indicators. As shrubs increase in size and density, canopy cover increases which alters micro-climate and reduces fine fuel amounts resulting in reduced fire intensity and frequency. Diversity and production of herbaceous understory is reduced as canopy cover increases.

Community 3.1
Willow (Salix spp.)

This plant community phase is dominated by sandbar and Bebb willow. Other shrubs species may include white meadowsweet. Herbaceous production is greatly reduced due to shading, with various sedges and rushes still dominating the remnant herbaceous community. Willow height may exceed six feet. As willows mature, herbaceous production may decline to less than 500 pounds per acre. Bare ground is minimal (less than 2%) due to plant litter accumulation from willow leaves. Once established, this plant community is very resilient and resistant to change. The lack of fine fuels in the understory and high degree of shading makes the application of prescribed fire very difficult, if not impossible, without some type of mechanical pretreatment a year to two prior to the burn. Some type of treatment which would reduce the willow canopy and allow the remnant herbaceous community to produce adequate fine fuel loads to permit the repeated application of prescribed fire may begin to shift the plant community toward State 2: Native/Invaded State.

State 4
Invaded

This state is the result of invasion and dominance by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, redtop, and/or quackgrass. Canada thistle, field sowthistle, leafy spurge, and exotic strains or hybrids of reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail are also known to invade the site. The exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. Common forbs often include goldenrod, sunflower, and Indianhemp. Willows and white meadowsweet may also be present. Once the state is well established, prescribed burning and grazing techniques have been largely ineffective in suppressing or eliminating these three species even though some short-term reductions may appear successful. Annual production of this state may vary widely, in part due to variations in the extent of invasion by exotic cool-season grasses

Characteristics and indicators. This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.

Resilience management. Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning, and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g. western snowberry) populations.

Community 4.1
Exotic Grasses/Foxtail Barley/Sedge/Willow

This plant community phase is characterized by an increase in disturbance tolerant exotic grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, quackgrass, redtop, and/or smooth brome in association with foxtail barley, sedges, and willows (e.g. sandbar, Bebb). Exotic strains and/or hybrids of reed canarygrass may also increase and become the dominant species. If soil salinity increases due to lack of plant cover and increased bare ground, foxtail barley may be a major component. Native species such as spikerush, muhly, mountain rush, curly dock, and other native forbs are often present. Canada thistle, leafy spurge and field sowthistle are exotic forbs known to invade the site

State 5
Go-Back State

This state is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T6A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this state is plant succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which may be noxious weeds and need control. Over time the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or redtop will likely predominate.

Community 5.1
Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics

Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics This community phase is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T6A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this phase is secondary succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, including noxious weeds (e.g. Canada thistle, leafy spurge) which may need control. Over time, the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or redtop will likely predominate.

State 6
Cropland State

Cropland State results from planting and production of annual crops. This plant community is most commonly associated with cropped fields. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of tillage induced compaction, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques..

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

This is the transition from the State 1: Reference State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State. This is often due to the introduction and establishment of exotic cool-season grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass, and/or redtop. Canada thistle and field sowthistle are also known to invade the site. This transition is probably inevitable and corresponds to a decline in native warm-season and cool-season grasses. The threshold between states is crossed when exotic species became established on the site. This transition may be exacerbated by chronic season-long or heavy late season grazing. Extended periods of no use and no fire is often associated with the a marked increase in willows which may become dominant. If no action is taken to limit the increase in willows, a further transition to State 3: Wooded State may be expected.

Constraints to recovery. Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

This is the restoration from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 1: Reference State may be accomplished through the implementation of mechanical brush control and prescribed burning, sediment removal, successful buffe or upland restoration. In the absence of invasive species, prescribed burning in combination with mechanical treatment and/or herbicide treatment, would reduce the willow component to Reference State levels. This restoration pathway is not applicable when exotic invasive species are present in the plant community or the surrounding upland has been previously or is currently cropped.

Context dependence. Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species. Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g. September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation (e.g. “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses).

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

This transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 3: Wooded State occurs during extended periods of no use and no fire. This enables the willows (e.g. sandbar, Bebb) to increase in the size and extent. The transition may be facilitated by periods of above average precipitation. Sporadic attempts to shift the plant community back to the Reference State through the use of prescribed burning and/or mechanical treatment causes the willow to re-sprout with multiple stems and, ultimately, may hasten the transition. Experience would indicate the threshold occurs when willows attain a height of greater than 30 inches and become multi-stemmed. At this point, the willows begin to suppress herbaceous production and limit fire intensity. If a fire does occur, it does not generate adequate heat to kill the willow or, if it top-kills the willow, re-sprouting results in an even thicker stand.

Constraints to recovery. Labor and financial cost of removal/control of woody species either through repeated prescribed burns, mechanical and/or chemical treatment.

Context dependence. Societal norms have accepted woody invasion as positive for wildlife habitat, carbon sequestration, aesthetics, etc. Livestock managers may not understand the loss of production due to woody invasion and loss of native grass species. Wildlife managers may need to manage woody habitat for exotic wildlife species such as ring-necked pheasants instead of sharp-tailed grouse or other grassland nesting birds intolerant to woody species invasion.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

This transition from the State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 4: Invaded State generally occurs as exotic species expand and begin to dominate the site. This is often due to exotic cool-season grasses such as quackgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, redtop, and/or smooth brome. However, hybrid cattail, exotic strains and hybrids of reed canarygrass, Canada thistle, field sowthistle, and leafy spurge are also known to invade the site. Studies indicate that a threshold may exist in this transition when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30% of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40% of the plant community composition. Similar thresholds may exist for other exotic species. This transition may occur under a wide range of managerial conditions ranging from non-use and no fire to heavy season-long grazing (primarily Kentucky bluegrass).

Constraints to recovery. Variations in growing conditions (e.g. cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

This restoration pathway from State 3: Wooded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with brush control. Initial use of herbicides and/or mechanical brush control to reduce willows will permit adequate fine fuel loads to establish, permitting the application of prescribed fire to further control sprouting. However, depending upon level of remnant native grasses and forbs, a range planting may also be necessary to re-establish the herbaceous plant community. A combination of mechanical brush management, chemical treatment, and prescribed burning is necessary to remove the willows and, if necessary, to prepare the seedbed for a successful range planting. Once this is accomplished, it may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because of sprouting of the willows following one burn. After establishment of the native plant species, management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses. Due to the resprouting nature of willows, repeated treatments may be necessary to complete the restoration. Following the removal of woody species, other restoration practices such as range planting, prescribed burning, and prescribed grazing may be necessary to complete the restoration. The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will help suppress any exotic cool-season grasses on the site.

Context dependence. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fuel type (herbaceous vs. shrub vs. tree), fine fuel amount and orientation ; (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on woody and exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses). The method of brush management will be site specific but generally the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control or biological control, either singularly or in combination, in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species. A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique. Management (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species. Adding non-native species can impact the above and below ground biota. Some evidence suggests the addition of exotic legumes to the seeding mixture may favor exotic cool-season grass expansion/invasion.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 2

This restoration pathway from State 4: Invaded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State may be accomplished with the implementation of long-term prescribed grazing and prescribed burning, assuming there is an adequate component of native grasses to respond to the treatments. Successful restoration along Restoration Pathway R4A is dependent upon management of the buffer or adjacent upland eliminating sedimentation and nutrient loading to the Wet Meadow ecological site and limiting invasive species movement from the adjacent upland sites. Both prescribed grazing and prescribed burning are likely necessary to successfully initiate this restoration pathway, the success of which depends upon the presence of a remnant population of native grasses in Community Phase 4.1. That remnant population, however, may not be readily apparent without close inspection. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because thew willows will resprout following one burn. Early season prescribed burns have been successful; however, fall burning may also be an effective technique. The prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources. If properly implemented, this will shift the competitive advantage from the exotic cool-season grasses to the native cool-season grasses.

Context dependence. Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species. Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g. September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation (e.g. “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses). The longer this community phase exists, the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of Kentucky bluegrass or smooth brome are typically short-lived.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 3

This transition from State 4: Invaded State to State 3: Wooded State is characterized by extended periods of no use and no fire. This enables willows (e.g. sandbar, Bebb) to increase in density and size, and eventually dominate the vegetation of the site.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 2

This restoration from State 5: Go-back State to State 2: Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with a successful range planting. Following seeding, prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, haying, or use of herbicides will generally be necessary to achieve the desired result and control any noxious weeds. It may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. After establishment of the native plant species, prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources, and management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses.

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 4

A failed range planting and/or secondary succession will lead to State 4: Invaded State.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 5

This transition from any plant community to State 5: Go-Back State. Most commonly, it is associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of restoration efforts, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history, such as development of a tillage induced compacted layer, erosion, fertility (degree of eutrophication), and sedimentation herbicide/pesticide carryover. Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.