Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Ecological site R058AY723MT

Wet Meadow 10-19

Last updated: 8/29/2024
Accessed: 11/23/2024

Home / Esd catalog / MLRA 058A / Ecological site R058AY723MT

USC

Metric

General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 058A–Northern Rolling High Plains, Northern Part

MLRA 058A, Northern Rolling High Plains (Northern Part), is an expansive and agriculturally and ecologically significant area encompassing 26 counties in southeast Montana (99 percent) and northeast Wyoming (1 percent). It stretches approximately 290 miles from east to west and 220 miles from north to south and comprises approximately 42,350 square miles (26,875,928 acres). The area is within the Missouri Plateau, Unglaciated, Section of the Great Plains Province of the Interior Plains. It is an area of old plateaus and terraces that have been eroded. Slopes generally are gently rolling to steep, and wide belts of steeply sloping badlands border a few of the larger river valleys. In some areas flat-topped, steep-sided buttes rise sharply above the general level of the plains. Elevations generally range from 2,950 to 3,280 feet, increasing from east to west and from north to south.

Tertiary continental shale, siltstone, and sandstone of the Fort Union Formation underlie the eastern one-third to one-half of this area. Marine and continental sediments of the Cretaceous Montana Group underlie the rest of the MLRA, generally at the higher elevations. There are also younger Cretaceous sediments of the Livingston Group occurring between the higher elevation Montana Group sediments and the lower elevation Tertiary sediments. The dominant soil orders in MLRA 058A are Entisols and Inceptisols. The soils in the area dominantly have a frigid soil temperature regime, an ustic soil moisture regime, and mixed or smectitic mineralogy. They range from shallow to very deep and are generally well drained and clayey or loamy.

The area primarily supports native prairie vegetation characterized by a variety of cool-season and warm-season graminoids, forbs, and shrubs. In the western portion of the area, cool-season grasses such as western wheatgrass and bluebunch wheatgrass are dominant but, in the eastern portion of the area, warm-season grasses such as little bluestem and sideoats grama become dominant. Wyoming big sagebrush, silver sagebrush, and fringed sagewort are common shrub species throughout the area. Forested areas occur in rough hilly areas and river breaks, particularly in areas with higher precipitation. Common tree species are ponderosa pine and Rocky Mountain juniper with scattered pockets of Douglas fir.

More than 75 percent of this MLRA is native rangeland utilized for livestock production and more than 50 percent of the MLRA consists of privately-owned ranches. Approximately 15 percent of the MLRA is used as cropland. Other land uses including forestland, urban development, water, and other uses combine for less than 10 percent of the total land use.

Classification relationships

NRCS Soil Geography Hierarchy
• Land Resource Region: Western Great Plains
• Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 058A Northern Rolling High Plains, Northern Part

National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units (Cleland et al., 1997; McNab et al., 2007)
• Domain: Dry
• Division: Temperate Steppe
• Province: Great Plains-Palouse Dry Steppe Province (331)
• Section: North Central Highlands (331K) and Powder River Basin (331G)

National Vegetation Classification Standard (Federal Geographic Data Committee, 2008)
• Class: Mesomorphic Shrub and Herb Vegetation Class (2)
• Subclass: Shrub and Herb Wetland Subclass (2.C)
• Formation: Temperate to Polar Freshwater Marsh, Wet Meadow, and Shrubland Formation (2.C.4)
• Division: Eastern North American Temperate and Boreal Freshwater Marsh, Wet Meadow and Shrubland Division (2.C.4.Nd)
• Macrogroup: Great Plains Marsh, Wet Meadow, Shrubland and Playa Macrogroup (2.C.4.Nd.5)
• Group: Great Plains Wet Prairie, Wet Meadow and Seepage Fen Group (2.C.4.Nd.5.b)

EPA Ecoregions
• Level 1: Great Plains (9)
• Level 2: West-Central Semi-Arid Prairies (9.3)
• Level 3: Northwestern Great Plains (9.3.3)
• Level 4: Montana Central Grasslands (43n), River Breaks (43c), and Pine Scoria Hills (43p)

Ecological site concept

This ecological site occurs on nearly level to slightly concave areas that have water at or near the soil surface throughout the growing season and occurs at elevations ranging from 1,900 to 3,500 feet. Slopes range from 0 to 1 percent. This site occurs on all aspects, although aspect is not a significant factor. The soils of this ecological site are primarily deep to very deep and are very poorly drained. The soil textures are typically loam, clay loam, or silt loam and are non-saline and non-sodic but can be calcareous or acidic.

Associated sites

R058AY736MT	Riparian Woodland 10-19 The Riparian Woodland ecological site is adjacent to the Wet Meadow ecological site, typically on areas where ponding duration is shorter and riparian woody plants are dominant.
R058AY738MT	Subirrigated 10-19 The Subirrigated ecological site is adjacent to the Wet Meadow ecological site, typically on higher terraces where ground water is farther from the soil surface.

R058AY736MT

Riparian Woodland 10-19

The Riparian Woodland ecological site is adjacent to the Wet Meadow ecological site, typically on areas where ponding duration is shorter and riparian woody plants are dominant.

R058AY738MT

Subirrigated 10-19

The Subirrigated ecological site is adjacent to the Wet Meadow ecological site, typically on higher terraces where ground water is farther from the soil surface.

Similar sites

R058AY736MT	Riparian Woodland 10-19 This site differs from the Wet Meadow ecological site in that it typically does not pond water and is dominated by riparian woody species. Shrubs and trees dominate the site in terms of cover and production.
R058AY738MT	Subirrigated 10-19 This site differs from the Wet Meadow ecological site in that it occupies higher terraces and the depth to a water table is 24 to 40 inches whereas the Wet Meadow ecological site has a water table at less than 24 inches.
R058AY737MT	Saline Subirrigated 10-19 This site differs from the Wet Meadow ecological site in that soils are saline, sodic, or saline-sodic (EC ≥ 4 or SAR ≥ 13) and the depth to a water table is 24 to 40 inches.

R058AY736MT

Riparian Woodland 10-19

This site differs from the Wet Meadow ecological site in that it typically does not pond water and is dominated by riparian woody species. Shrubs and trees dominate the site in terms of cover and production.

R058AY738MT

Subirrigated 10-19

This site differs from the Wet Meadow ecological site in that it occupies higher terraces and the depth to a water table is 24 to 40 inches whereas the Wet Meadow ecological site has a water table at less than 24 inches.

R058AY737MT

Saline Subirrigated 10-19

This site differs from the Wet Meadow ecological site in that soils are saline, sodic, or saline-sodic (EC ≥ 4 or SAR ≥ 13) and the depth to a water table is 24 to 40 inches.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	(1) Calamagrostis (2) Carex

Download full description

Physiographic features

This ecological site occurs on nearly level to slightly concave areas that have water at or near the soil surface throughout the growing season. The slopes typically range from 0 to 1 percent. This site occurs on all aspects. Aspect is not a significant factor.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Depression (2) Flood plain (3) Drainageway
Flooding frequency	Rare
Ponding duration	Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to long (7 to 30 days)
Ponding frequency	Occasional to frequent
Elevation	1,900 – 3,500 ft
Slope	1%
Ponding depth	1 – 4 in
Water table depth	24 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

MLRA 058A is a semi-arid region and is considered to have a continental climate characterized by cold winters, hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. The climate is the result of the MLRA’s location in the geographic center of North America. Temperatures can be extreme. The average annual temperature is 41 to 49 degrees Fahrenheit. Summer daytime temperatures are typically quite warm, generally averaging in the lower to mid 80 degree range for July and August. Summertime temperatures will typically reach 100 degrees or more at some point during the summer and can reach 90 degrees during any month between May and September. Conversely, winter temperatures can be cold, averaging in the lower teens or less for December and January. There will typically be several days of below zero temperatures each winter. It is not uncommon for temperatures to reach 30 to 40 degrees below zero, or even colder, most any winter.

During an average year, 70 to 75 percent of the annual precipitation falls between April and September, which are the primary growing season months. Most of the rainfall occurs as frontal storms early in the growing season during the months of May and June. Some high-intensity, convective thunderstorms occur in July and August, and some rainfall occurs in autumn. Later summer precipitation is greater in the eastern portion of the MLRA, which effects plant community composition. Winter precipitation occurs as snow although snowfall is not heavy, averaging about 39 inches annually, and snow cover is typically 1 to 3 inches. Heavy snowfall occurs infrequently, usually late in the winter or early spring. The average annual precipitation ranges from 8 to 22 inches but is typically 10 to 19 inches throughout most of the area. Precipitation fluctuates widely from year to year and severe drought occurs 2 out of 10 years on average.

There are few natural barriers on the northern Great Plains and the winds move freely across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature. Spring can be windy throughout the MLRA, with winds averaging over 10 mph about 15 percent of the time. Speeds of 50 mph or stronger can occasionally occur. During the winter months, the western half of the MLRA commonly experiences Chinook winds, which are strong west to southwest surface winds accompanied by abrupt increases in temperature. The Chinook winds are strongest on the western boundary of the MLRA near the Rocky Mountain foothills and decrease eastward. In addition to producing damaging winds, prolonged Chinook episodes can result in drought or vegetation kills due to a reaction of plants to a “false spring” (Oard, 1993).

For local climate station information, refer to https://wrcc.dri.edu/summary/Climsmemt.html.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	70-150 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	90-180 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	10-19 in
Frost-free period (average)	121 days
Freeze-free period (average)	143 days
Precipitation total (average)	15 in

Bar

Line

Figure 1. Monthly precipitation range

Bar

Line

Figure 2. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 3. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 4. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) RAPELJE [USC00246862], Rapelje, MT
(2) HYSHAM 25 SSE [USC00244364], Bighorn, MT
(3) BRANDENBERG [USC00241084], Rosebud, MT
(4) TERRY 21 NNW [USC00248169], Terry, MT
(5) BLOOMFIELD 5 NNE [USC00240923], Bloomfield, MT
(6) GLENDIVE [USC00243581], Glendive, MT
(7) POWDERVILLE 8 NNE [USC00246691], Volborg, MT
(8) JORDAN 23 ENE [USC00244530], Jordan, MT
(9) FT PECK PWR PLT [USC00243176], Fort Peck, MT
(10) CIRCLE [USC00241758], Circle, MT
(11) BROCKWAY 3 WSW [USC00241169], Brockway, MT
(12) MILES CITY F WILEY FLD [USW00024037], Miles City, MT
(13) MIZPAH 4 NNW [USC00245754], Ismay, MT
(14) SAND CREEK [USC00247342], Roy, MT
(15) ROCK SPRINGS [USC00247136], Angela, MT
(16) COHAGEN [USC00241875], Cohagen, MT
(17) WINIFRED [USC00249033], Hilger, MT
(18) COLUMBUS [USC00241938], Columbus, MT
(19) WYOLA 1 SW [USC00249175], Wyola, MT
(20) EKALAKA [USC00242689], Ekalaka, MT
(21) MELSTONE [USC00245596], Musselshell, MT
(22) YELLOWTAIL DAM [USC00249240], Lodge Grass, MT

Influencing water features

This is a wetland site that receives additional moisture from groundwater and occasionally stream overflow. A seasonal groundwater table is present within 24 inches of the soil surface throughout most of the growing season. Typically, the ponding duration is 30 days or less, although some sites may pond water for 1 to 4 months, particularly in wet years. Ponding depth is typically 4 inches or less.

Wetland description

Palustrine Emergent Temporarily Flooded and Palustrine Emergent Seasonally Flooded (Cowardin et al., 1979)

Soil features

Soils for this ecological site are typically very deep (greater than 60 inches to bedrock), very poorly drained, and derived from alluvium from clay sediments. A seasonal high-water table is present within 24 inches of the soil surface. A thin (0 to 3 inches) organic horizon is typically present on the soil surface and surface mineral horizon textures are typically silty clay, clay, or silty clay loam. Subsurface horizon textures are typically clay or silty clay, but some pedons may have strata of silty clay loam or sandy clay loam. Coarse fragments are typically not present in the upper 20 inches of soil. The soil temperature regime is primarily frigid, with smaller areas of mesic temperature regime present. The soil moisture regime is aquic. The following figure shows a typical soil profile for this ecological site.

Figure 5. Typical Soil Profile

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium
Surface texture	(1) Partially decomposed organic matter (2) Silty clay (3) Clay (4) Silty clay loam
Drainage class	Very poorly drained
Permeability class	Very slow
Soil depth	60 – 72 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (6-60in)	7 – 12.4 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (6-60in)	Not specified
Electrical conductivity (6-60in)	2 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (6-60in)	Not specified
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (6-60in)	6.5 – 8.4
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-60in)	Not specified
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-60in)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference state to understand the original potential of the site. This ecological site developed under the combined influences of climatic conditions, periodic fire activity, grazing by large herbivores, and impacts from small mammals and insects. Changes may occur to the Reference state due to management actions such as improper grazing management, climatic conditions such as drought, and natural events such as fires and floods. The reference state is dominated by a diversity of tall and medium height, cool-season and warm-season grasses, sedges, and rushes, which are tightly intermixed and well distributed over the site. Various forbs are common on this site. The Reference state is not necessarily the management goal, as other vegetative states may be considered desired plant communities as long as critical resource concerns are met.

In addition to the Reference state, other plant communities can occur on this site and are usually the result of historic management practices. Long term overgrazing on this ecological site results in a decrease of mid-grasses, a drastic decrease sedge diversity, and an increase in rushes and unpalatable forbs. Spike rushes increase in years of above average rainfall. There are various transitional stages which may occur on this ecological site.

State and transition model

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference

2. Reduced Diversity

3. Invaded

T1A	-	Prolonged improper grazing management
T1B	-	Introduction of non-native invasive species (non-native perennial grasses, noxious weeds, etc.)
R2A	-	Proper grazing management, normal or above-normal moisture, revegetation (management intensive and costly)
T2A	-	Introduction of non-native invasive species (non-native perennial grasses, noxious weeds, etc.)

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reedgrass and Sedge

1.2. Sedge and Spikerush

1.3. Beaked Sedge and Nebraska Sedge

1.1A	-	Above average precipitation
1.1B	-	Improper grazing management
P1.2a	-	Return to normal precipitation
1.2B	-	Improper grazing management
1.3A	-	Normal precipitation, proper grazing management
1.3B	-	Above average precipitation, proper grazing management

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Nebraska Sedge and Arctic Rush

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Invaded

State 1
Reference

The Reference state for this ecological site consists of three communities and evolved under the combined influences of climatic conditions, periodic fire activity, grazing by large herbivores, and impacts from small mammals and insects. The Reference state is the plant community in which interpretations are primarily based and is used as a reference in order to understand the original potential of the site.

Dominant plant species

bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), grass
slimstem reedgrass (Calamagrostis stricta), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
spikerush (Eleocharis), grass
Nebraska sedge (Carex nebrascensis), grass
beaked sedge (Carex rostrata), grass

Community 1.1
Reedgrass and Sedge

This plant community is characterized by a diverse community dominated by reedgrasses and sedges. Tall grasses such as prairie cordgrass, American mannagrass, fowl mannagrass, American sloughgrass, bluejoint reedgrass, and slimstem reedgrass are common. Sedge communities are highly diversified including species such as beaked sedge, Nebraska sedge, clustered field sedge, and woolly sedge. Needle spikerush may also be present, particularly on wetter sites. Typically, ponding duration is 1.5 to 4 weeks.

Community 1.2
Sedge and Spikerush

This plant community is characterized a diverse community dominated by sedges and spikerushes. Sedge communities are highly diversified including species such as beaked sedge, Nebraska sedge, clustered field sedge, and woolly sedge. Common spikerush species include needle spikerush and common spikerush. Tall grasses such as prairie cordgrass, American mannagrass, fowl mannagrass, and American sloughgrass are common. Typically, ponding duration is 1 to 4 months.

Community 1.3
Beaked Sedge and Nebraska Sedge

This plant community is characterized by declining species diversity in sedge communities. Sensitive species such as beaked sedge, clustered field sedge, and woolly sedge are being replaced by more resilient species such as Nebraska sedge. Tallgrasses such as prairie cordgrass, American mannagrass, fowl mannagrass, American sloughgrass, bluejoint reedgrass, and slimstem reedgrass are also declining in canopy cover and plant vigor. Unpalatable forbs such as silverweed cinquefoil, wild mint, common yarrow, willowherb, buttercup, and smartweed are increasing. This plant community occurs when site conditions decline due to improper grazing management such as continuous season-long or year-long grazing.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Above-average precipitation shifts community 1.1 to community 1.2.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Improper grazing management such as continuous season-long or year-long grazing can shift community 1.1 to community 1.3.

Pathway P1.2a
Community 1.2 to 1.1

A return to normal precipitation shifts community 1.2 to community 1.1.

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Improper grazing practices such as continuous season-long or year-long grazing can shift community 1.2 to community 1.3.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Normal precipitation and proper grazing management shifts community 1.3 to community 1.1.

Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Above-average precipitation and proper grazing management shifts community 1.3 to community 1.2.

State 2
Reduced Diversity

The Reduced Diversity state occurs when diverse, native plant communities become fragmented which alters ecological processes, ecosystem function, and resilience, resulting in a state that is substantially departed from the Reference State.

Dominant plant species

Nebraska sedge (Carex nebrascensis), grass
arctic rush (Juncus arcticus), grass

Community 2.1
Nebraska Sedge and Arctic Rush

This plant community is characterized by a dominance of Nebraska sedge and arctic rush, locally known as baltic rush. Tallgrasses such as prairie cordgrass, American mannagrass, fowl mannagrass, American sloughgrass, bluejoint reedgrass, and slimstem reedgrass are rare or absent. Sedge communities once comprised of species such as beaked sedge, Nebraska sedge, clustered field sedge, and woolly sedge have become low in species diversity. Unpalatable forbs such as silverweed cinquefoil, wild mint, common yarrow, willowherb, buttercup, and smartweed are common.

State 3
Invaded

The Invaded state occurs when invasive plant species invade native plant communities and displace the native species. The Invaded state consists of one community.

Community 3.1
Invaded

Observations suggest that native species diversity declines significantly when invasive or noxious species exceed approximately 30 percent of the plant community. Introduced perennial grasses, such as creeping meadow foxtail, or noxious weed species can eventually dominate the seedbank of this site and displace native species. Reduced plant species diversity, simplified structural complexity, and altered ecological processes result in a state that is substantially departed from the Reference state.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Prolonged improper grazing practices weaken the resilience of the Reference state and drive its transition to the Reduced Diversity state.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The Reference state transitions to the Invaded state when non-native grasses or noxious weeds invade the plant community. Exotic plant species dominate the site in terms of cover and production and site resilience has been substantially reduced. In addition, other rangeland health attributes, such as reproductive capacity of native grasses and soil quality, have been substantially altered from the Reference state.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Proper grazing management, normal or above-normal moisture, and revegetation transition the Reduced Diversity state back to the Reference state. These practices are typically management intensive and costly, therefore, returning the Reduced Diversity state to the Reference state can require considerable cost, energy, and time.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

The Reduced Diversity state transitions to the Invaded state when non-native grasses, noxious weeds, and other invasive plants invade the Reduced Diversity state. Exotic plant species dominate the site in terms of cover and production. Site resilience has been substantially reduced.

Additional community tables

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Specific field data was not obtained for this provisional ecological site description. Existing field data were used in conjunction with a review of the scientific literature and professional experience to approximate the plant communities, states, and transitions. All community phases are considered provisional based on the sources identified in this ecological site description.

Other references

Anderson, R.C. 2006. Evolution and origin of the central grassland of North America: Climate, fire, and mammalian grazers. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 133:626-647.

Biondini, M.E., and L. Manske. 1996. Grazing frequency and ecosystem processes in a northern mixed prairie, USA. Ecological Applications 6:239-256.

Biondini, M.E., B.D. Patton, and P.E. Nyren. 1998. Grazing intensity and ecosystem processes in a northern mixed-grass prairie, USA. Ecological Applications 8:469-479.

Bragg, T.B. 1995. The physical environment of the Great Plains grasslands. In: A. Joern and K.H. Keeler (eds.) The Changing Prairie, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 49–81.

Cleland, D.T., et al. 1997. National hierarchical framework of ecological units. In: M.S. Boyce and A. Haney (eds.) Ecosystem Management Applications for Sustainable Forest and Wildlife Resources, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

Coupland, R.T. 1950. Ecology of the mixed prairie of Canada. Ecological Monographs 20:271-315.

Coupland, R.T. 1958. The effects of fluctuations in weather upon the grasslands of the Great Plains. Botanical Review 24:273-317.

Coupland, R.T. 1961. A reconsideration of grassland classification in the Northern Great Plains of North America. Journal of Ecology 49:135-167.

Coupland, R.T., and R.E. Johnson. 1965. Rooting characteristics of native grassland species in Saskatchewan. Journal of Ecology 53:475-507.

Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. US Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS, 79(31), 131.

DeKeyser, E.S., M. Meehan, G. Clambey, and K. Krabbenhoft. 2013. Cool season invasive grasses in northern Great Plains natural areas. Natural Areas Journal 33:81-90.

Derner, J.D., and R.H. Hart. 2007. Grazing-induced modifications to peak standing crop in northern mixed-grass prairie. Rangeland Ecology and Management 60:270-276.

Dix, R.L. 1960. The effects of burning on the mulch structure and species composition of grasslands in western North Dakota. Ecology 41:49-56.

Federal Geographic Data Committee. 2008. The National Vegetation Classification Standard, Version 2. FGDC Vegetation Subcommittee. FGDC-STD-005-2008 (Version 2). pp. 126.

Haferkamp, M.R., R.K. Heitschmidt, and M.G. Karl. 1997. Influence of Japanese brome on western wheatgrass yield. Journal of Range Management 50:44-50.

Hansen, P.L., et al. 1995. Classification and management of Montana's riparian and wetland sites. University of Montana, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station, Miscellaneous Publication No. 54.

Herrick, J.E., J.W. Van Zee, K.M. Havstad, L.M. Burkett, and W.G. Whitford. 2009. Monitoring manual for grassland, shrubland and savanna ecosystems. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, NM.

Higgins, K.F. 1986. Interpretation and compendium of historical fire accounts in the Northern Great Plains. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publication 161.

lnteragency Ecological Site Handbook for Rangelands. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, USDA Forest Service, USDI Bureau of Land Management. January 2013.

Joern, A. 2005. Disturbance by fire frequency and bison grazing modulate grasshopper assemblages in tallgrass prairie. Ecology 86:861-873.

Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. USDA Handbook 296. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006.

Laycock, W.A. 1988. History of grassland plowing and grass planting on the Great Plains. In: J.E. Mitchell (ed.) Impacts of the Conservation Reserve Program in the Great Plains—Symposium Proceedings, September 16-18, 1987. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report RM-158.

Laycock, W.A. 1991. Stable states and thresholds of range condition on North American rangelands. Journal of Range Management 44:427-433.

Lockwood, J.A. 2004. Locust: The devastating rise and mysterious disappearance of the insect that shaped the American frontier. Basic Books, New York, NY.

McNab, W.H., et al. 2007. Description of ecological subregions: Sections of the conterminous United States [CD-ROM]. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76B.

Montana State College. 1949. Similar vegetative rangeland types in Montana. Montana State College, Agricultural Experiment Station.

National Ecological Site Handbook. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. March 2017.

National Range and Pasture Handbook. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. December 2003.

National Soil Information System. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/geo/?cid=nrcs142p2_053552.

National Soil Survey Handbook. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. November 2019.

Nesser, J.A., G.L. Ford, C.L. Maynard, and D.S. Page-Dumroese. 1997. Ecological units of the Northern Region: Subsections. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, General Technical Report INT-GTR-369.

NRCS Plants Database. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://plants.usda.gov/java/.

Oard, M.J. 1993. A method of predicting chinook winds east of the Montana Rockies. Weather and Forecasting 8:166-180.

Rowe, J.S. 1969. Lightning fires in Saskatchewan grassland. Canadian Field Naturalist 83:317-327.

Salo, E.D., et al. 2004. Grazing intensity effects on vegetation, livestock and non-game birds in North Dakota mixed-grass prairie. Proceedings of the 19th North American Prairie Conference, Madison, WI.

Samuel, M.J., and R.H. Hart. 1994. Sixty-one years of secondary succession on rangelands of the Wyoming High Plains. Journal of Range Management 47:184-191.

Shay, J., D. Kunec, and B. Dyck. 2001. Short-term effects of fire frequency on vegetation composition and biomass in mixed prairie in south-western Manitoba. Plant Ecology 155:157-167.

Smith, B., and G.J. McDermid. 2014. Examination of fire-related succession within the dry mixed-grass subregion of Alberta with the use of MODIS and Landsat. Rangeland Ecology and Management 67:307-317.

Soil Survey Manual. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. March 2017.

Soil Survey Staff. 2014. Keys to soil taxonomy, 12th edition. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Toledo, D., M. Sanderson, K. Spaeth, J. Hendrickson, and J. Printz. 2014. Extent of Kentucky bluegrass and its effect on native plant species diversity and ecosystem services in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. Invasive Plant Science and Management 7:543-552.

Umbanhowar, Jr., C.E. 2004. Interactions of climate and fire at two sites in the Northern Great Plains. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and Palaeoecology 208:141-152.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Glossary of landform and geologic terms. National Soil Survey Handbook, Title 430-VI, Part 629.02c. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcs142p2_054242 (accessed 13 April 2016).

Vermeire, L.T., J.L. Crowder, and D.B. Wester. 2011. Plant community and soil environment response to summer fire in the northern Great Plains. Rangeland Ecology and Management 64:37-46.

Vermeire, L.T., J.L. Crowder, and D.B. Wester. 2014. Semiarid rangeland is resilient to summer fire and postfire grazing utilization. Rangeland Ecology and Management 67:52-60.

Vuke, S.M., K.W. Porter, J.D. Lonn, and D.A. Lopez. 2007. Geologic map of Montana - information booklet: Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Geologic Map 62-D.

Wilson, S.D., and J.M. Shay. 1990. Competition, fire, and nutrients in a mixed-grass prairie. Ecology 71:1959-1967.

Contributors

Jeff Fenton
Scott Brady
Maryjo Kimble
Brian Kloster

Approval

Kirt Walstad, 8/29/2024

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	09/03/2024
Approved by	Kirt Walstad
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production