Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site R058DY012SD
Thin Loamy
Accessed: 04/26/2024
General information
Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
Classification relationships
Level IV Ecoregions of the Conterminous United States: 43e – Sagebrush Steppe.
Associated sites
R058DY009SD |
Sandy |
---|---|
R058DY010SD |
Loamy |
R058DY011SD |
Clayey |
R058DY024SD |
Shallow Loamy |
Similar sites
R058DY024SD |
Shallow Loamy Shallow Loamy [less little bluestem; less production] |
---|---|
R058DY010SD |
Loamy Loamy [more western wheatgrass; less needleandthread; more production] |
R058DY028SD |
Shallow Sandy Shallow Sandy [more prairie sandreed, less production] |
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree |
Not specified |
---|---|
Shrub |
Not specified |
Herbaceous |
(1) Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata |
Physiographic features
This site occurs on moderately steep to steep uplands.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms |
(1)
Hill
(2) Ridge |
---|---|
Flooding frequency | None |
Ponding frequency | None |
Elevation | 2,300 – 4,000 ft |
Slope | 9 – 25% |
Water table depth | 80 in |
Aspect | Aspect is not a significant factor |
Climatic features
The climate in this MLRA is typical of the drier portions of the Northern Great Plains where sagebrush steppes to the west yield to grassland to the east. Annual precipitation ranges from 14 to 16 inches. Most of the rainfall occurs as frontal storms early in the growing season. Some high-intensity, convective thunderstorms occur the summer. Precipitation in winter occurs as snow. Temperatures show a wide range between summer and winter and between daily maximums and minimums, due to the high elevation and dry air, which permits rapid incoming and outgoing radiation. Outbreaks of cold air from Canada in winter move rapidly from northwest to southeast and account for extreme minimum temperatures. Extreme storms may occur during the winter, but most severely affect ranch operations during late winter and spring. The normal average annual temperature is about 44° F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 12° F (Marmarth, ND) to about 20° F (Baker, MT). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 70° F (Marmarth, ND) to about 76° F (Baker, MT). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 55° F. Hourly winds are estimated to average about 11 miles per hour annually, ranging from about 13 miles per hour during the spring to about 10 miles per hour during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 miles per hour.
Growth of cool season plants begins in early to mid March, slowing or ceasing in late June. Warm season plants begin growth about mid May and can continue to early or mid September. Green up of cool season plants may occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.
Table 3. Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (average) | 123 days |
---|---|
Freeze-free period (average) | 140 days |
Precipitation total (average) | 16 in |
Figure 2. Monthly precipitation range
Figure 3. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Influencing water features
No significant water features influence this site.
Soil features
The soils in this site are well-drained and formed in residuum weathered from shale and siltstone. The surface layer is four to seven inches thick. The texture of the profile ranges from loam to clay loam. The soils have a moderate infiltration rate. The soils on this site are weakly developed as is evidenced by carbonates that typically occur at or near the surface. This site should show slight to no evidence of rills, wind scoured areas, or pedestalled plants. Water flow paths are typically not present, but when visible they are broken and irregular in appearance or discontinuous. The soil surface is stable and intact. Subsurface soil layers are nonrestrictive to water movement and root penetration. These soils are mainly susceptible to water erosion. The hazard of water erosion increases on slopes greater than about 10 percent. Access Web Soil Survey (http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm) for specific local soils information.
Table 4. Representative soil features
Surface texture |
(1) Loam |
---|---|
Family particle size |
(1) Loamy |
Drainage class | Well drained |
Permeability class | Moderately slow |
Soil depth | 20 – 50 in |
Surface fragment cover <=3" | 5% |
Surface fragment cover >3" | Not specified |
Available water capacity (0-40in) |
5 in |
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in) |
25% |
Electrical conductivity (0-40in) |
2 mmhos/cm |
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in) |
Not specified |
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in) |
6.6 – 8.4 |
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified) |
5% |
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified) |
Not specified |
Ecological dynamics
This site developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions, natural influences of large herbivores, occasional fire, and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil/site development. Changes will occur in the plant communities due to short-term weather variations, impacts of native and/or exotic plant and animal species, and management actions. While the following plant community descriptions describe more typical transitions between communities that will occur, severe disturbances, such as periods of well below average precipitation, can cause significant shifts in plant communities and/or species composition.
The plant community upon which interpretations are primarily based is the Needlegrass/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem Plant Community. This plant community has been determined by studying rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts also have been used. Plant communities, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience. Heavy continuous grazing and/or continuous seasonal (spring) grazing, without adequate recovery periods following each grazing occurrence causes this site to depart from the Needlegrass/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem Plant Community. Blue grama will begin to increase. Western wheatgrass will increase initially and then begin to decrease. Green needlegrass will decrease in frequency and production. In time, heavy continuous grazing will likely cause upland sedges and blue grama to dominate and clubmoss to increase. This resulting plant community is relatively stable and the competitive advantage prevents other species from establishing. This plant community is less productive than the Needlegrass/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem Plant Community. Runoff increases and infiltration will decrease. Soil erosion will be minimal.
The following is a diagram that illustrates the common plant communities that can occur on the site and the transition pathways between communities. The ecological processes are discussed in more detail in the plant community descriptions following the diagram.
State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available.
View Interactive Models
More interactive model formats are also available.
View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text
Ecosystem states
State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference
The State narrative is under development.
Community 1.1
Needleandthread/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem
The plant community upon which interpretations are primarily based is the Needlegrass/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem Plant Community. This is also considered to be climax. This plant community can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning, and on areas receiving occasional short periods of deferment. The potential vegetation is about 80 to 90 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 5 to 10 percent shrubs. A mixture of cool- and warm-season grasses dominates the plant community. Major grasses include western wheatgrass, needleandthread, and little bluestem. Other grasses and grass-like species include green needlegrass, big bluestem, sideoats grama, blue grama, and sedge. Significant forbs include purple coneflower, cudweed sagewort, scurfpea, and prairie clover. Significant shrubs found in this plant community include leadplant, sagebrush, and western snowberry. This plant community is extremely resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. Community dynamics, nutrient cycle, water cycle, and energy flow are functioning properly. Plant litter is properly distributed with very little movement offsite and natural plant mortality is very low. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance.
Figure 4. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
Plant type | Low (lb/acre) |
Representative value (lb/acre) |
High (lb/acre) |
---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike | 860 | 1275 | 1670 |
Shrub/Vine | 70 | 113 | 165 |
Forb | 70 | 112 | 165 |
Total | 1000 | 1500 | 2000 |
Figure 5. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5803, Northern Rolling High Plains, cool-season/warm-season co-dominant.. Cool-season, warm-season co-dominant, uplands..
Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
0 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 20 | 28 | 21 | 10 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
Community 1.2
Little Bluestem/Western Wheatgrass/Grama
This plant community develops under continuous seasonal grazing and a low fire frequency. Little bluestem increases and sometimes dominates this plant community, as it takes advantage of soil disturbance (resulting from hoof action, or increased bare ground due to reduced plant vigor). Other significant grasses or grass-like species include western wheatgrass, blue grama, threadleaf sedge, and needleandthread. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include cudweed sagewort, green sagewort, scurfpea, and purple coneflower. Significant shrubs include fringed sagewort and sagebrush. The potential vegetation is about 80 to 90 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 5 to 10 percent shrubs. Although production remains relatively high, little bluestem plants often become “wolfy,” and largely not grazed due to lower palatability. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. Also, certain species and/or classes of livestock will readily consume the little bluestem in any condition and result in a shift away from this plant community phase. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term.
Figure 6. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 6. Annual production by plant type
Plant type | Low (lb/acre) |
Representative value (lb/acre) |
High (lb/acre) |
---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike | 690 | 1020 | 1340 |
Shrub/Vine | 55 | 90 | 130 |
Forb | 55 | 90 | 130 |
Total | 800 | 1200 | 1600 |
Figure 7. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5804, Northern Rolling High Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant, uplands..
Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
0 | 0 | 3 | 7 | 18 | 24 | 25 | 15 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Community 1.3
Western Wheatgrass/Buffalograss/Blue Grama
This plant community develops under continuous seasonal grazing (grazing at the same time of year every year for extended periods) later in the growing season and a low fire frequency. This pattern of grazing reduces the warm-season grasses with the exception of the short warm-season species. Significant grasses or grass-like species include western wheatgrass, blue grama, threadleaf sedge, and needleandthread. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include cudweed sagewort, green sagewort, scurfpea, and purple coneflower. Significant shrubs include fringed sagewort, sagebrush, and yucca. The potential vegetation is about 80 to 90 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 5 to 10 percent shrubs. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. Transitions and/or community pathways leading away from this plant community phase are as follows: • Heavy continuous seasonal grazing or heavy continuous season-long grazing will convert the plant community to the Grama/Sedge/Threeawn Plant Community. • Prescribed grazing will convert this plant community to the Needlegrass/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem Plant Community.
Figure 8. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 7. Annual production by plant type
Plant type | Low (lb/acre) |
Representative value (lb/acre) |
High (lb/acre) |
---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike | 600 | 935 | 1260 |
Shrub/Vine | 50 | 83 | 120 |
Forb | 50 | 82 | 120 |
Total | 700 | 1100 | 1500 |
Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5804, Northern Rolling High Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant, uplands..
Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
0 | 0 | 3 | 7 | 18 | 24 | 25 | 15 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Pathway 1.1a
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Continuous seasonal grazing (grazing at the same time of year every year for extended periods) will convert this plant community to the Little Bluestem/Western Wheatgrass/Grama Plant Community.
Pathway 1.1b
Community 1.1 to 1.3
Summer continuous seasonal grazing (grazing later in the season every year) will shift this plant community to the Western Wheatgrass/Buffalograss/Blue Grama Plant Community.
Pathway 1.2a
Community 1.2 to 1.1
Prescribed grazing will convert this plant community to Needlegrass/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing |
---|
Pathway 1.3a
Community 1.3 to 1.1
Prescribed grazing will convert this plant community to the Needlegrass/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem Plant Community.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing |
---|
State 2
Shortgrass
The State narrative is under development.
Community 2.1
Grama/Sedge/Threeawn
This plant community is a result from heavy grazing over many years. Diversity is diminished, as the short grasses become dominant in the plant community. The grazing tolerant blue grama and sedges replace little bluestem, western wheatgrass, and the needlegrasses. Sideoats grama remains in the plant community, but is less productive because of competition and grazing pressure. Due to low palatability, cudweed sagewort, green sagewort, scurfpea, western ragweed, and western yarrow become more prevalent in the plant community. Fringed sagewort is the dominant shrub in this plant community. Other shrubs commonly found in this plant community include cactus, yucca, and silver sagebrush. The potential vegetation is about 75 to 90 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 5 to 15 percent shrubs. This plant community is resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are less palatable and/or more grazing tolerant than the dominant species in the Needlegrass/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem Plant Community. The dominant grass and grass-like species typically have short, compact rooting systems near the soil surface. This results in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Onsite soil erosion may remain low, but the increased runoff may have damaging effects on adjacent ecological sites (ES).
Figure 10. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 8. Annual production by plant type
Plant type | Low (lb/acre) |
Representative value (lb/acre) |
High (lb/acre) |
---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike | 520 | 742 | 955 |
Shrub/Vine | 40 | 90 | 150 |
Forb | 40 | 68 | 95 |
Total | 600 | 900 | 1200 |
Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5804, Northern Rolling High Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant, uplands..
Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
0 | 0 | 3 | 7 | 18 | 24 | 25 | 15 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Transition T1
State 1 to 2
Heavy continuous seasonal grazing or heavy continuous season-long grazing will convert the plant community to the Grama/Sedge/Threeawn Plant Community.
Restoration pathway R2
State 2 to 1
Long-term prescribed grazing that includes changing season of use and allowing adequate recovery periods will slowly lead this plant community back through successional stages that may eventually result in a plant community resembling the Needlegrass/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem Plant Community.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing |
---|
Additional community tables
Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
1 | Needlegrass | 225–375 | ||||
needle and thread | HECOC8 | Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata | 150–300 | – | ||
green needlegrass | NAVI4 | Nassella viridula | 30–150 | – | ||
porcupinegrass | HESP11 | Hesperostipa spartea | 0–75 | – | ||
2 | Wheatgrass | 150–300 | ||||
western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 150–300 | – | ||
slender wheatgrass | ELTR7 | Elymus trachycaulus | 0–75 | – | ||
3 | Mid Warm-Season Grasses | 150–300 | ||||
little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 75–225 | – | ||
sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 30–150 | – | ||
plains muhly | MUCU3 | Muhlenbergia cuspidata | 15–75 | – | ||
prairie dropseed | SPHE | Sporobolus heterolepis | 0–45 | – | ||
4 | Tall Warm-Season Grasses | 30–150 | ||||
big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | 30–150 | – | ||
prairie sandreed | CALO | Calamovilfa longifolia | 0–75 | – | ||
5 | Short-Warm Season Grasses | 75–150 | ||||
blue grama | BOGR2 | Bouteloua gracilis | 30–150 | – | ||
hairy grama | BOHI2 | Bouteloua hirsuta | 0–75 | – | ||
buffalograss | BODA2 | Bouteloua dactyloides | 0–75 | – | ||
6 | Other Native Grasses | 15–75 | ||||
prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 15–75 | – | ||
Sandberg bluegrass | POSE | Poa secunda | 0–45 | – | ||
Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 2GRAM | Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 0–45 | – | ||
squirreltail | ELEL5 | Elymus elymoides | 0–45 | – | ||
7 | Grass-Likes | 75–150 | ||||
threadleaf sedge | CAFI | Carex filifolia | 30–150 | – | ||
Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–75 | – | ||
Forb
|
||||||
9 | Forbs | 75–150 | ||||
Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 15–75 | – | ||
white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 15–45 | – | ||
blacksamson echinacea | ECAN2 | Echinacea angustifolia | 15–45 | – | ||
scurfpea | PSORA2 | Psoralidium | 15–45 | – | ||
cutleaf anemone | PUPAM | Pulsatilla patens ssp. multifida | 15–30 | – | ||
upright prairie coneflower | RACO3 | Ratibida columnifera | 0–30 | – | ||
goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 15–30 | – | ||
white prairie aster | SYFA | Symphyotrichum falcatum | 15–30 | – | ||
scarlet beeblossom | GACO5 | Gaura coccinea | 15–30 | – | ||
old man's whiskers | GETR | Geum triflorum | 0–30 | – | ||
Nuttall's sensitive-briar | MINU6 | Mimosa nuttallii | 0–30 | – | ||
beardtongue | PENST | Penstemon | 15–30 | – | ||
false boneset | BREU | Brickellia eupatorioides | 0–30 | – | ||
sego lily | CANU3 | Calochortus nuttallii | 15–30 | – | ||
prairie clover | DALEA | Dalea | 15–30 | – | ||
field sagewort | ARCA12 | Artemisia campestris | 0–30 | – | ||
milkvetch | ASTRA | Astragalus | 0–15 | – | ||
western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 0–15 | – | ||
Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 0–15 | – | ||
pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | 0–15 | – | ||
spiny phlox | PHHO | Phlox hoodii | 0–15 | – | ||
woolly plantain | PLPA2 | Plantago patagonica | 0–15 | – | ||
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
10 | Shrubs | 75–150 | ||||
silver sagebrush | ARCA13 | Artemisia cana | 0–75 | – | ||
big sagebrush | ARTR2 | Artemisia tridentata | 0–75 | – | ||
leadplant | AMCA6 | Amorpha canescens | 15–60 | – | ||
Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–45 | – | ||
western snowberry | SYOC | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | 0–45 | – | ||
rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 15–30 | – | ||
dwarf false indigo | AMNA | Amorpha nana | 15–30 | – | ||
prairie sagewort | ARFR4 | Artemisia frigida | 15–30 | – | ||
pricklypear | OPUNT | Opuntia | 0–15 | – | ||
skunkbush sumac | RHTR | Rhus trilobata | 0–15 | – | ||
soapweed yucca | YUGL | Yucca glauca | 0–15 | – |
Table 10. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
1 | Needlegrass | 24–120 | ||||
needle and thread | HECOC8 | Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata | 24–120 | – | ||
green needlegrass | NAVI4 | Nassella viridula | 0–60 | – | ||
2 | Wheatgrass | 60–180 | ||||
western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 60–180 | – | ||
slender wheatgrass | ELTR7 | Elymus trachycaulus | 0–24 | – | ||
3 | Mid Warm-Season Grasses | 120–240 | ||||
little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 120–240 | – | ||
sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 24–120 | – | ||
plains muhly | MUCU3 | Muhlenbergia cuspidata | 0–36 | – | ||
prairie dropseed | SPHE | Sporobolus heterolepis | 0–12 | – | ||
4 | Tall Warm-Season Grasses | 0–60 | ||||
big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | 0–60 | – | ||
prairie sandreed | CALO | Calamovilfa longifolia | 0–36 | – | ||
5 | Short-Warm Season Grasses | 120–240 | ||||
blue grama | BOGR2 | Bouteloua gracilis | 60–180 | – | ||
hairy grama | BOHI2 | Bouteloua hirsuta | 12–120 | – | ||
buffalograss | BODA2 | Bouteloua dactyloides | 12–120 | – | ||
threeawn | ARIST | Aristida | 0–36 | – | ||
6 | Other Native Grasses | 12–60 | ||||
prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 12–60 | – | ||
Sandberg bluegrass | POSE | Poa secunda | 0–36 | – | ||
Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 2GRAM | Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 0–36 | – | ||
squirreltail | ELEL5 | Elymus elymoides | 0–36 | – | ||
7 | Grass-Likes | 60–180 | ||||
threadleaf sedge | CAFI | Carex filifolia | 60–180 | – | ||
Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–60 | – | ||
8 | Non-Native Grasses | 12–60 | ||||
cheatgrass | BRTE | Bromus tectorum | 12–60 | – | ||
bluegrass | POA | Poa | 12–60 | – | ||
Forb
|
||||||
9 | Forbs | 60–120 | ||||
Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 12–60 | – | ||
white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 12–48 | – | ||
Forb, introduced | 2FI | Forb, introduced | 12–36 | – | ||
field sagewort | ARCA12 | Artemisia campestris | 12–36 | – | ||
scurfpea | PSORA2 | Psoralidium | 12–36 | – | ||
goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 12–24 | – | ||
white prairie aster | SYFA | Symphyotrichum falcatum | 12–24 | – | ||
prairie clover | DALEA | Dalea | 0–24 | – | ||
blacksamson echinacea | ECAN2 | Echinacea angustifolia | 12–24 | – | ||
western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 12–24 | – | ||
Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 12–24 | – | ||
woolly plantain | PLPA2 | Plantago patagonica | 12–24 | – | ||
pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | 0–12 | – | ||
milkvetch | ASTRA | Astragalus | 0–12 | – | ||
false boneset | BREU | Brickellia eupatorioides | 0–12 | – | ||
scarlet beeblossom | GACO5 | Gaura coccinea | 0–12 | – | ||
old man's whiskers | GETR | Geum triflorum | 0–12 | – | ||
Nuttall's sensitive-briar | MINU6 | Mimosa nuttallii | 0–12 | – | ||
beardtongue | PENST | Penstemon | 0–12 | – | ||
spiny phlox | PHHO | Phlox hoodii | 0–12 | – | ||
cutleaf anemone | PUPAM | Pulsatilla patens ssp. multifida | 0–12 | – | ||
upright prairie coneflower | RACO3 | Ratibida columnifera | 0–12 | – | ||
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
10 | Shrubs | 60–120 | ||||
silver sagebrush | ARCA13 | Artemisia cana | 0–48 | – | ||
prairie sagewort | ARFR4 | Artemisia frigida | 12–48 | – | ||
big sagebrush | ARTR2 | Artemisia tridentata | 0–48 | – | ||
Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–36 | – | ||
leadplant | AMCA6 | Amorpha canescens | 0–24 | – | ||
pricklypear | OPUNT | Opuntia | 0–24 | – | ||
rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 12–24 | – | ||
western snowberry | SYOC | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | 0–24 | – | ||
soapweed yucca | YUGL | Yucca glauca | 0–24 | – | ||
skunkbush sumac | RHTR | Rhus trilobata | 0–12 | – | ||
dwarf false indigo | AMNA | Amorpha nana | 0–12 | – |
Table 11. Community 1.3 plant community composition
Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
1 | Needlegrass | 55–165 | ||||
needle and thread | HECOC8 | Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata | 55–165 | – | ||
green needlegrass | NAVI4 | Nassella viridula | 0–55 | – | ||
2 | Wheatgrass | 110–275 | ||||
western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 110–275 | – | ||
3 | Mid Warm-Season Grasses | 22–88 | ||||
sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 11–55 | – | ||
little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 11–55 | – | ||
5 | Short-Warm Season Grasses | 165–275 | ||||
blue grama | BOGR2 | Bouteloua gracilis | 110–220 | – | ||
hairy grama | BOHI2 | Bouteloua hirsuta | 11–110 | – | ||
buffalograss | BODA2 | Bouteloua dactyloides | 11–110 | – | ||
threeawn | ARIST | Aristida | 0–33 | – | ||
6 | Other Native Grasses | 11–55 | ||||
prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 11–55 | – | ||
Sandberg bluegrass | POSE | Poa secunda | 0–33 | – | ||
Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 2GRAM | Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 0–33 | – | ||
squirreltail | ELEL5 | Elymus elymoides | 0–33 | – | ||
7 | Grass-Likes | 55–165 | ||||
threadleaf sedge | CAFI | Carex filifolia | 55–165 | – | ||
Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–55 | – | ||
8 | Non-Native Grasses | 11–55 | ||||
cheatgrass | BRTE | Bromus tectorum | 11–55 | – | ||
bluegrass | POA | Poa | 11–55 | – | ||
Forb
|
||||||
9 | Forbs | 55–110 | ||||
Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 11–55 | – | ||
white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 11–44 | – | ||
Forb, introduced | 2FI | Forb, introduced | 11–33 | – | ||
field sagewort | ARCA12 | Artemisia campestris | 11–33 | – | ||
scurfpea | PSORA2 | Psoralidium | 11–33 | – | ||
goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 11–22 | – | ||
white prairie aster | SYFA | Symphyotrichum falcatum | 11–22 | – | ||
prairie clover | DALEA | Dalea | 0–22 | – | ||
blacksamson echinacea | ECAN2 | Echinacea angustifolia | 11–22 | – | ||
western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 11–22 | – | ||
Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 11–22 | – | ||
woolly plantain | PLPA2 | Plantago patagonica | 11–22 | – | ||
pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | 0–11 | – | ||
milkvetch | ASTRA | Astragalus | 0–11 | – | ||
false boneset | BREU | Brickellia eupatorioides | 0–11 | – | ||
scarlet beeblossom | GACO5 | Gaura coccinea | 0–11 | – | ||
old man's whiskers | GETR | Geum triflorum | 0–11 | – | ||
Nuttall's sensitive-briar | MINU6 | Mimosa nuttallii | 0–11 | – | ||
beardtongue | PENST | Penstemon | 0–11 | – | ||
spiny phlox | PHHO | Phlox hoodii | 0–11 | – | ||
cutleaf anemone | PUPAM | Pulsatilla patens ssp. multifida | 0–11 | – | ||
upright prairie coneflower | RACO3 | Ratibida columnifera | 0–11 | – | ||
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
10 | Shrubs | 55–110 | ||||
silver sagebrush | ARCA13 | Artemisia cana | 0–44 | – | ||
prairie sagewort | ARFR4 | Artemisia frigida | 11–44 | – | ||
big sagebrush | ARTR2 | Artemisia tridentata | 0–44 | – | ||
soapweed yucca | YUGL | Yucca glauca | 0–33 | – | ||
Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–33 | – | ||
rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 11–22 | – | ||
western snowberry | SYOC | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | 0–22 | – | ||
pricklypear | OPUNT | Opuntia | 0–22 | – | ||
skunkbush sumac | RHTR | Rhus trilobata | 0–11 | – | ||
leadplant | AMCA6 | Amorpha canescens | 0–11 | – | ||
dwarf false indigo | AMNA | Amorpha nana | 0–11 | – |
Table 12. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
1 | Needlegrass | 0–45 | ||||
needle and thread | HECOC8 | Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata | 0–45 | – | ||
2 | Wheatgrass | 0–45 | ||||
western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 0–45 | – | ||
3 | Mid Warm-Season Grasses | 0–45 | ||||
sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 0–45 | – | ||
little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 0–27 | – | ||
5 | Short-Warm Season Grasses | 180–405 | ||||
blue grama | BOGR2 | Bouteloua gracilis | 135–315 | – | ||
hairy grama | BOHI2 | Bouteloua hirsuta | 9–90 | – | ||
threeawn | ARIST | Aristida | 18–90 | – | ||
buffalograss | BODA2 | Bouteloua dactyloides | 0–45 | – | ||
6 | Other Native Grasses | 9–45 | ||||
prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 9–27 | – | ||
Sandberg bluegrass | POSE | Poa secunda | 0–18 | – | ||
Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 2GRAM | Graminoid (grass or grass-like) | 0–18 | – | ||
squirreltail | ELEL5 | Elymus elymoides | 0–18 | – | ||
7 | Grass-Likes | 90–225 | ||||
threadleaf sedge | CAFI | Carex filifolia | 90–225 | – | ||
Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–45 | – | ||
8 | Non-Native Grasses | 9–45 | ||||
cheatgrass | BRTE | Bromus tectorum | 9–45 | – | ||
bluegrass | POA | Poa | 9–45 | – | ||
Forb
|
||||||
9 | Forbs | 45–90 | ||||
Forb, introduced | 2FI | Forb, introduced | 9–45 | – | ||
field sagewort | ARCA12 | Artemisia campestris | 9–45 | – | ||
white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 9–45 | – | ||
Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 9–36 | – | ||
western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 9–27 | – | ||
Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 9–27 | – | ||
scurfpea | PSORA2 | Psoralidium | 9–27 | – | ||
spiny phlox | PHHO | Phlox hoodii | 0–18 | – | ||
woolly plantain | PLPA2 | Plantago patagonica | 9–18 | – | ||
pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | 0–18 | – | ||
goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 9–18 | – | ||
white prairie aster | SYFA | Symphyotrichum falcatum | 9–18 | – | ||
milkvetch | ASTRA | Astragalus | 0–9 | – | ||
prairie clover | DALEA | Dalea | 0–9 | – | ||
blacksamson echinacea | ECAN2 | Echinacea angustifolia | 0–9 | – | ||
upright prairie coneflower | RACO3 | Ratibida columnifera | 0–9 | – |
Interpretations
Animal community
Animal Community – Wildlife Interpretations
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 58D lies within the drier portion of Northern mixed-grass prairie ecosystem where sagebrush steppes to the west yield to grassland steppes to the east. Prior to European settlement, this area consisted of diverse grass/shrub land habitats interspersed with
varying densities of depressional, in-stream wetlands, and woody riparian corridors. These habitats provided critical life cycle components for many of its users. Many species of grassland birds, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn were among the inhabitants adapted to this semi-arid region. Roaming herbivores, as well as, several small mammal and insect species, were the primary consumers linking the grassland resources to predators such as the wolf, mountain lion, and grizzly bear, as well as, smaller carnivores such as the coyote, bobcat, fox, and raptors. The black-tailed prairie dog was once abundant; however, the species remains a keystone species within its range. The black-footed ferret, burrowing owl, ferruginous hawk, mountain plover, and swift fox were associated with prairie dog complexes.
Historically, the Northern mixed-grass prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbance factors either singly or in combination. Following European settlement, livestock grazing, cropland conversion, elimination of fire, energy development, and other anthropogenic factors influenced species composition and abundance. Introduced and invasive species further impacted plant and animal communities. Bison were historically a keystone species but have been extirpated as a free-ranging herbivore. The loss of the bison, reduction of prairie dog colonies, and loss of fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native plant communities and altered wildlife habitats. Human development has reduced habitat quality for area-sensitive species.
Within MLRA 58D the Thin Loamy ES site provides upland grassland cover with an associated forb and shrub component. It was typically part of an expansive grassland landscape that included combinations of Shallow Loamy, Shallow Clayey, Claypan, Thin Claypan, Sandy, Sandy Claypan, Loamy, and Clayey ESs. This site provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grassland. Important habitat features and components found commonly or exclusively on this site may include greater sage-grouse and sharp-tailed grouse leks; upland nesting habitat for grassland birds, forbs, and insects for brood habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores. Many grassland and shrub steppe nesting bird populations are declining. Extirpated species include free-ranging bison, grizzly bear, gray wolf, black-footed ferret, mountain plover, Rocky Mountain locust, and swift fox.
The majority of the Thin Loamy ES remains intact and provides increasingly important habitat for grassland and shrub steppe nesting birds, small rodents, coyotes, and a variety of reptiles, amphibians, and insects. Invasive species such as annual bromegrasses and crested wheatgrass have impacted the biological integrity of the site for some grassland birds such as greater sage-grouse. Changes in historic fire regime and domestic grazing have impacted the forb/shrub/grass percentages. Greater sage-grouse and Brewer’s sparrow benefit when big sagebrush increases.
Needlegrass/Western Wheatgrass/Bluestem (HCPC): The predominance of grasses plus high diversity of forbs and shrubs in this community favors grazers and mixed-feeders, such as deer and pronghorn. Insects, such as pollinators, play a large role in maintaining the forb community and provide a forage base for grassland birds and other species. The complex plant structural diversity provides habitat for a wide array of migratory and resident birds. Grasshopper sparrow, lark bunting, western meadowlark, and sharp-tailed grouse are common and benefit from the structure and composition this plant community provides. Brewer’s sparrow and greater sage grouse may be present depending on the frequency and distribution of big sagebrush. Diverse prey populations are available for grassland raptors such as ferruginous hawk, Swainson’s hawk, golden eagle, and prairie falcon.
The diversity of grasses, forbs, and shrubs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including voles, mice, thirteen-lined ground squirrel, white-tailed jackrabbit, and deer. The higher stature of this plant community provides thermal, protective and escape cover for herbivores and grassland birds. Predators utilizing this plant community include coyote, American badger, red fox and long-tailed weasel. This plant community provides habitat for herptiles such as the spade foot toad, bull snake, and western rattlesnake.
Little Bluestem/Western Wheatgrass/Grama: This plant community develops under continuous seasonal grazing and a low fire frequency. The predominance of grasses plus high diversity of forbs and shrubs in this community favors grazers and mixed-feeders such as deer and pronghorn. Insects, such as pollinators, play a large role in maintaining the forb community and provide a forage base for grassland birds and other species. The increase in little bluestem, a medium height bunchgrass, provides complex plant structural diversity for a wide array of migratory and resident birds. Grasshopper sparrow, lark bunting, western meadowlark, and sharp-tailed grouse are common. Brewer’s sparrow and greater sage-grouse may be present depending on the frequency and distribution of big sagebrush. Diverse prey populations are available for grassland raptors such as ferruginous hawk, Swainson’s hawk, golden eagle, and prairie falcon.
The diversity of grasses, forbs, and shrubs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including voles, mice, thirteen-lined ground squirrel, white-tailed jackrabbit, and deer. The moderate stature of this plant community provides suitable thermal, protective, and escape cover for small herbivores and grassland birds. Predators utilizing this plant community include coyote, American badger, red fox, and long-tailed weasel. This plant community provides habitat for spade foot and Great Plains toad; and bull snake and western rattlesnake.
Western Wheatgrass/Buffalograss/Blue Grama: This plant community results from continuous seasonal grazing later in the growing season and a low fire frequency. Western wheatgrass, buffalograss, and blue grama will dominate. A shift to shorter plant structure will favor prairie dog expansion and associate species such as ferruginous hawk, burrowing owl, and swift fox. Species such as horned lark, long-billed curlew, upland sandpiper, and white-tailed jackrabbit will increase due to the loss of big sagebrush. Brewer’s sparrow and greater sage-grouse may be present depending on the frequency and distribution of big sagebrush. The shorter stature of this plant community limits suitable thermal, protective, and escape cover. Predators utilizing this plant community include the coyote, American badger, red fox, and long-tailed weasel.
Grama/Sedge/Threeawn: Resulting from heavy grazing over many years’ grama, sedge, and threeawn will dominate. The forb diversity and abundance has decreased, while shrub diversity has decreased. A shift to short plant structure will favor prairie dog expansion with prairie dog town sites and associate species such as ferruginous hawk and burrowing owl. Species such as horned lark, long-billed curlew, upland sandpiper, and white-tailed jackrabbit will increase. Species such as Brewer’s sparrow, greater sage-grouse, as well as, desert cottontail will rarely use this site.
The short stature of this plant community limits suitable thermal, protective, and escape cover. Prey populations are reduced and are more vulnerable to raptor and mammalian predation. Predators utilizing this plant community include the coyote, American badger, red fox, and long-tailed weasel.
Extreme impairment of the ecological processes impacts offsite aquatic habitats through excessive runoff, nutrient, and sediment loads. Elevated surface temperatures resulting from reduced cover and litter will greatly reduce habitat for most amphibian species, grassland birds, and mammals.
Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations
As this site improves in condition through proper management (from the more short grass dominated plant communities to the interpretive plant community), the advantage for livestock production includes: higher forage production from cool-season grasses, improved early spring forage production, and higher water infiltration. The disadvantage for livestock include: reduction in cool-/warm-season grass mix which would provides better management flexibility, less plant diversity, and a potential increase in soil erosion. The Annual, Pioneer Perennial Plant Community is of limited value for livestock production.
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements, and added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.
Hydrological functions
Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B. Infiltration and runoff potential for this site varies from moderate to high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Normally, areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).
Recreational uses
This site provides hunting opportunities for upland game species. The wide varieties of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an esthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wood products
No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.
Other products
Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.
Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations and experience were also used. Those involved in developing this site description include: Ryan Beer, Range Management Specialist (RMS), NRCS; Chuck Berdan, Biologist (BIO), Bureau of Land Management (BLM); Stan Boltz, RMS, NRCS; Dave Dewald, Wildlife BIO, NRCS; Jody Forman, RMS, NRCS; Dennis Froemke, RMS, NRCS; Tom Juntti, BIO, United States Forest Service (USFS); Cheryl Nielsen, RMS, NRCS; Jeff Printz, RMS, NRCS; Mike Stirling, RMS, NRCS; Dan Svingen, BIO, USFS; Darrell Vanderbusch, Soil Scientist, NRCS; Cindy Zachmeier, BIO, NRCS; and Tim Zachmeier, BIO, BLM.
There is 1 SCS-RANGE-417 compiled in 2004 from Harding County, South Dakota.
Other references
High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska, 830728 Chase Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583-0728. (http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/)
USDA, NRCS. National Water and Climate Center, 101 SW Main, Suite 1600, Portland, OR 97204-3224. (http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/)
USDA, NRCS. National Range and Pasture Handbook, September 1997
USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, 2150 Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526. (http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov)
USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA
USDA, NRCS, Various Published Soil Surveys
Contributors
Stan Boltz
Travis Patient
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) | Stan Boltz, Thad Berrett, Cheryl Nielsen |
---|---|
Contact for lead author | stanley.boltz@sd.usda.gov, 605-352-1236 |
Date | 05/07/2010 |
Approved by | Stan Boltz |
Approval date | |
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
-
Number and extent of rills:
Slight to none, typically on steeper slopes and discontinuous. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
None, or barely visible and discontinuous with numerous debris dams when present. -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Few pedastalled plants typically on steeper slopes. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
0 to 15 percent is typical. -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None should be present. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Small size litter classes will generally move short distances, some medium size class litter will move very short distances. Litter debris dams are occasionally present. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil aggregate stability ratings should typically be 5 to 6, normally 6. Surface organic matter adheres to the soil surface. Soil surface fragments will typically retain structure indefinitely when dipped in distilled water. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
A-horizon should be 2 to 6 inches thick with light to dark brownish gray colors. Structure should typically be fine granular at least in the upper A-horizon. Some soils have subangular blocky structure parting to weak fine granular. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Combination of shallow and deep rooted species (mid & tall rhizomatous and tufted perennial cool- and warm-season grasses) with fine and coarse roots positively influences infiltration. -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None – when dry, subsoil can be hard and appear to be compacted, but no platy structure will be present. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Mid/tall cool-season bunchgrasses > Mid warm-season grasses = Wheatgrass >Sub-dominant:
Tall warm-season grass = Short warm-season grass = Grass-likes = Forbs = Shrubs >Other:
Short cool-season bunchgrassesAdditional:
-
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little evidence of decadence or mortality. Bunch grasses have strong, healthy centers and shrubs are vigorous. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
-
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Production ranges from 1,000-2,000 lbs./acre (air-dry weight). Reference value production is 1,500 lbs./acre (air-dry weight). -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
State and local noxious weeds -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All species exhibit high vigor relative to climatic conditions. Do not rate based solely on seed production. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers.
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