Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site R061XY003SD
Subirrigated
Last updated: 7/17/2024
Accessed: 12/22/2024
General information
Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 061X–Black Hills Foot Slopes
The Black Hills Foot Slopes (MLRA 61) is shared between Wyoming (WY) (58 percent) and South Dakota (SD) (42 percent). The MLRA is approximately 1,865 square miles. The towns of Spearfish, Sturgis, and Hot Springs, South Dakota, and Newcastle and Sundance, Wyoming, are all in this MLRA. Rapid City, South Dakota, is on the eastern edge of the MLRA. Wind Cave National Park, Devils Tower National Monument, and parts of Thunder Basin National Grassland and the Black Hills National Forest are also in MLRA 61. Devils Tower was the nation’s first National Monument, designated by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906.
The Black Hills Foot Slopes consists of steeply dipping rocks circling the domed mountains of the Black Hills. As the mountains were uplifted, older sediments were tipped up and dipped away from the core of the mountains. The Lower Cretaceous Fall River and Lakota (Inyan Kara Group) sandstones, which are on the outside edge of the area, are referred to as the Dakota Hogback. The next geologic formation is the Triassic-aged red beds of the Spearfish shale. It forms a low valley. This “red valley” surrounds the Black Hills between the two ridges formed by the Inyan Kara (hogback) and Minnekahta Formations associated with the Black Hills (MLRA 62). The Lakota referred to the red valley as the “Big Racecourse or the Red Racetrack.” The red beds have gypsum and anhydrous layers. Ground water seepage can dissolve these layers, creating sinkholes on the surface.
The average elevation of MLRA 61 ranges from 2,950 to 3,940 feet with extremes to 5,580 feet. Slopes are generally hilly; however, the interior red beds are nearly level to moderately sloping. The exterior hogback is steep, erosion-resistant rock. The Belle Fourche River is the only river flowing through MLRA 61. It passes through Hulett, Wyoming.
The dominant soil orders in this MLRA are Alfisols, Entisols, and Mollisols. The soils in the area predominantly have frigid or mesic soil temperature regimes and aridic or ustic soil moisture regimes. The soils are shallow to very deep, generally well drained, and loamy.
Average annual precipitation is 16 to 22 inches. The majority of rainfall occurs early in the growing season. Some high-intensity thunderstorms occur in mid-late summer. This MLRA supports open grassland, open ponderosa forest, and savanna-like vegetation. The grassland is characterized by native grasses, such as big bluestem, little bluestem, western wheatgrass, needle and thread, prairie dropseed, and green needlegrass. Bur oak grows throughout the northern area and can develop into nearly pure stands.
The major resource concerns are water quality, wind erosion, water erosion, and urban expansion.
MLRA 61 is 54 percent privately owned rangeland and 19 percent forest land. Federal lands make up 7 percent of the rangeland and 5 percent of the forest land. The remaining 15 percent of the MLRA is privately owned cropland and urban development (USDA-NRCS, 2006: Ag Handbook 296).
LRU notes
For development of ecological sites, MLRA 61 is divided into three precipitation zones (PZ).
The northern area (18–22” PZ) extends from just south of Rapid City, South Dakota, north to the Wyoming border.
The southern area (16–18” PZ) extends from Newcastle, Wyoming, south to Hot Springs, South Dakota, then north to just south of Rapid City.
The western area (16–20” PZ) is primarily located in Wyoming, extending from Newcastle in the south, to north of the Bear Lodge Mountains, then south through the gap between the Bear Lodge Mountains and the Black Hills.
One additional grouping of ecological sites represents sites that are common for the entire MLRA and do not have a precipitation zone designation.
The forest lands in MLRA 61 are represented by three forest ecological sites, which are currently correlated to MLRA 62 Black Hills.
Classification relationships
USDA Land Resource Region G—Western Great Plains Range and Irrigated Region:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 61—Black Hills Foot Slopes
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Level IV Ecoregions of the Conterminous United States:
Black Hills Foothills—17a
USDA Forest Service
Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of Conterminous United States:
Black Hills Coniferous Forest Province—M334:
Black Hills Foothills Subsection—M334Aa
Ecological site concept
The Subirrigated ecological site is found throughout MLRA 61. It is a run-in site located on nearly level alluvial fans, stream terraces, and floodplains. Slopes range from 0 to 4 percent. The soils are very deep and formed in loamy or sandy alluvium. The surface layer is 4 to 15 inches in depth with silt loam to fine sandy loamy textures. Soils are somewhat poorly drained, with moderate to slow permeability. The textures of the subsurface soils range from silty clay loam to sand. A seasonal water table occurs within 2 to 3 feet of the surface and significantly influences plant species composition and productivity. The site is non-saline and non-alkaline.
Vegetation in the Reference State (1.0) is dominated by tall and mid-stature warm-season grasses. Forbs are common and diverse. Shrubs and trees can be scattered across the site.
Associated sites
| R061XY020SD |
Overflow The Overflow ecological site is found adjacent to a stream channel. It can also be adjacent to or immediately below the Subirrigated ecological site. |
|---|---|
| R061XY042SD |
Lowland The Lowland ecological site is found on the low stream terrace immediately above the Subirrigated ecological site. The Lowland site is occasionally to rarely flooded. |
| R061XY022SD |
Loamy Terrace The Loamy Terrace ecological site is found on the stream terrace above the Subirrigated ecological site. The Loamy Terrace site is rarely to very rarely flooded. |
| R061XY002SD |
Wet Land The Wet Land ecological site is found adjacent to or intermixed with the Subirrigated ecological site. |
Similar sites
| R061XY020SD |
Overflow The Overflow ecological site will have more cool-season grasses; scattered trees; and lower vegetative production than the Subirrigated ecological site. |
|---|---|
| R061XY042SD |
Lowland The Lowland ecological site will have more cool-season grasses; trees and shrubs are common; and lower vegetative production than the Subirrigated ecological site. |
| R061XY002SD |
Wet Land The Wet Land ecological site will have surface water present for a significant portion of the growing season; and more sedges, rushes, and other hydrophyte species than the Subirrigated ecological site. |
Table 1. Dominant plant species
| Tree |
Not specified |
|---|---|
| Shrub |
Not specified |
| Herbaceous |
(1) Andropogon gerardii |
Physiographic features
The Subirrigated ecological site occurs on nearly level floodplains adjacent to streams, springs, and ponds. A water table generally occurs within reach of the plants for some portion of the growing season.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
| Landforms |
(1)
Valley
> Flood plain
(2) Valley > Stream terrace |
|---|---|
| Runoff class | Low to high |
| Flooding duration | Brief (2 to 7 days) to long (7 to 30 days) |
| Flooding frequency | Occasional to frequent |
| Ponding frequency | None |
| Elevation | 884 – 1,219 m |
| Slope | 0 – 4% |
| Water table depth | 61 – 203 cm |
| Aspect | Aspect is not a significant factor |
Climatic features
The climate in MLRA 61 is typical of the drier portions of the Northern Great Plains where sagebrush steppes to the west yield to grassland steppes to the east. Average annual precipitation ranges from 16 to 22 inches with most falling during the growing season. Temperatures show a wide range between summer and winter and between daily maximums and minimums. The wide range is due to the high elevation and dry air, which permit rapidly incoming and outgoing radiation. In winter, cold air outbreaks from Canada move rapidly from northwest to southeast and account for extreme minimum temperatures. Chinook winds may occur in the winter and bring rapid rises in temperature. Extreme storms may occur during the winter. They most severely affect ranch operations during late winter and spring.
The average annual temperature is about 47 °F. January and December are the coldest months with average temperatures ranging from about 23 °F (NNW of Edgemont, SD) to about 26 °F (Fort Meade, SD). July is the warmest month with average temperatures ranging from about 69 °F (Fort Meade, WY) to about 73 °F (Hot Springs, SD). The range of average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 47 °F. Wind speeds are estimated to average about 11 miles per hour annually, ranging from about 13 miles per hour during the spring to about 10 miles per hour during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime winds. Occasionally, storms bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 miles per hour.
Growth of cool-season plants begins in early to mid-March, slowing or ceasing in late June. Warm-season plants begin growth about mid-May and continue to early or mid-September. Cool-season plants may green-up in September and October if adequate soil moisture is present.
Table 3. Representative climatic features
| Frost-free period (characteristic range) | 96-117 days |
|---|---|
| Freeze-free period (characteristic range) | 120-143 days |
| Precipitation total (characteristic range) | 457-533 mm |
| Frost-free period (actual range) | 80-124 days |
| Freeze-free period (actual range) | 115-157 days |
| Precipitation total (actual range) | 406-559 mm |
| Frost-free period (average) | 107 days |
| Freeze-free period (average) | 133 days |
| Precipitation total (average) | 483 mm |
Figure 2. Monthly precipitation range
Figure 3. Monthly minimum temperature range
Figure 4. Monthly maximum temperature range
Figure 5. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 6. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 7. Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
-
(1) BEAR RIDGE [USC00390554], Spearfish, SD
-
(2) EDGEMONT [USC00392557], Edgemont, SD
-
(3) EDGEMONT 23 NNW [USC00392565], Custer, SD
-
(4) FT MEADE [USC00393069], Fort Meade, SD
-
(5) HOT SPRINGS [USC00394007], Hot Springs, SD
-
(6) RAPID CITY WFO [USC00396948], Rapid City, SD
-
(7) RAPID CITY 4NW [USC00396947], Rapid City, SD
-
(8) SPEARFISH [USC00397882], Spearfish, SD
-
(9) DEVILS TWR #2 [USC00482466], Devils Tower, WY
-
(10) HULETT [USC00484760], Hulett, WY
-
(11) NEWCASTLE [USC00486660], Newcastle, WY
-
(12) SUNDANCE [USC00488705], Sundance, WY
-
(13) UPTON 14ENE [USC00489208], Newcastle, WY
Influencing water features
Riparian areas and wetland features can be directly associated with the Subirrigated ecological site.
Stream Type: B6, C6
(Rosgen System)
Wetland description
Not Applicable.
Soil features
Soils common to the Subirrigated ecological site are very deep and formed in loamy or sandy alluvium. Subsurface textures are course to moderately fine. Soils are somewhat poorly drained with moderate to slow permeability. Water holding capacity is high. These soils have a high-water table (2 to 3 feet from the surface) which keeps the rooting zone moist for a portion of the growing season. Salinity is none to slight and sodicity is typically none to slight. Subsurface soil layers are not restrictive to water movement or root penetration.
This site should show no evidence of rills, wind-scoured areas, or pedestalled plants. No water flow patterns are seen on this site. The soil surface is stable and intact.
Major Soils correlated to the Subirrigated ecological site include, Herdcamp, Higgins, Rapidcreek, and Sodawells.
The Local Phase is typically categorized as poorly or somewhat poorly drained and the Flooding ratings are typically occasional or frequently flooded.
Some of these soils with a frequently flooded Local Phase, and a Flooding rating of frequently are typically correlated to the Overflow ecological site (R061XY020SD).
These soils are mainly susceptible to water erosion. The hazard of water erosion increases where vegetative cover is not adequate. A drastic loss of the soil surface layer on this site can result in a shift in species composition and production.
More information regarding the soil is available in soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for details specific to your area of interest, or go online to access USDA’s Web Soil Survey.
Table 4. Representative soil features
| Parent material |
(1)
Alluvium
|
|---|---|
| Surface texture |
(1) Silt loam (2) Fine sandy loam (3) Loam |
| Family particle size |
(1) Loamy |
| Drainage class | Poorly drained to somewhat poorly drained |
| Permeability class | Slow to moderate |
| Soil depth | 203 cm |
| Surface fragment cover <=3" | 0% |
| Surface fragment cover >3" | 0% |
| Available water capacity (0-101.6cm) |
15.24 – 17.78 cm |
| Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-101.6cm) |
5 – 30% |
| Electrical conductivity (0-101.6cm) |
0 – 4 mmhos/cm |
| Sodium adsorption ratio (0-101.6cm) |
0 – 5 |
| Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-101.6cm) |
6.6 – 8.4 |
| Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified) |
0 – 11% |
| Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified) |
0% |
Ecological dynamics
The Subirrigated ecological site developed under the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions; light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores; sporadic, natural or human-caused wildfire (often of light intensities); and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short-term weather variations, effects of native and exotic plant and animal species, and management actions. Although the following plant community descriptions are typical of the transitions between communities, severe disturbances, such as periods of well below average precipitation and the introduction of non-native cool-season grasses, can cause significant shifts in plant communities and species composition.
Interpretations are primarily based on the Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass Plant Community (1.1). It has been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts also have been used. Plant community phases, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience.
It may difficult to locate the Reference Plant Community (1.1) with the spread and establishment of non-native cool-season grasses in MLRA 61. The Native/Invaded State (2.0) is more representative to current conditions than the Reference State (1.0). Because of the persistence of non-native cool-season grasses, a restoration pathway to the Reference State (1.0) is not believed to be achievable.
The following state-and-transition diagram illustrates the common plant communities on the site and the transition pathways between communities. The ecological processes are discussed in more detail in the plant community descriptions following the diagram.
State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available.
View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text
State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference State
The Reference State represents what is believed to show the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of the ecological site prior to European settlement. This site in the Reference State (1.0) was typically dominated by warm-season grasses, with occasional shifts to a near co-dominance of cool- and warm-season grasses. In pre-European times, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included periods of below and above average precipitation, periodic fire, and herbivory by insects and large ungulates. Timing of fires and herbivory coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Today the primary disturbance is from a lack of fire and concentrated livestock grazing and excessive haying. Grasses that are desirable for livestock and wildlife can decline and a corresponding increase in less desirable grasses will occur. Today, a similar state will be difficult to find due to the predominance and invasiveness of non-native cool-season perennial gasses.
Community 1.1
Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass
Interpretations are based primarily on the Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass Plant Community. This is also considered to be Reference Plant Community (1.1). This community evolved with grazing by large herbivores, occasional prairie fires, and occasional to frequent flooding events. The potential vegetation was about 85 percent grass and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs and trees by air-dry weight. The dominant grasses included big bluestem, switchgrass, and Indiangrass. Other grass and grass-like species that occurred were sedges, little bluestem, porcupine grass, Canada wildrye, slender wheatgrass, and western wheatgrass. Common forbs were likely Maximilian sunflower, Rocky Mountain iris, Indian hemp, goldenrod, showy milkweed, gayfeather, black-eyed Susan, and American licorice. This site does not typically support a large amount of woody species, but rose, leadplant, and snowberry were the most common shrubs. This plant community is diverse, stable, and productive, and is well adapted to the Northern Great Plains. The high-water table supplies much of the moisture for plant growth. Community dynamics, nutrient cycle, water cycle, and energy flow are functioning properly. Plant litter is properly distributed with very little movement offsite and natural plant mortality is very low. The diversity in plant species allows for the variability of the water table. This is a sustainable plant community in terms of soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Figure 8. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (kg/hectare) |
Representative value (kg/hectare) |
High (kg/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grass/Grasslike | 4186 | 4761 | 5268 |
| Forb | 247 | 404 | 616 |
| Shrub/Vine | 50 | 161 | 280 |
| Tree | – | 54 | 112 |
| Total | 4483 | 5380 | 6276 |
Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6110, Black Hills Foot Slopes, lowland warm-season dominant. Warm-season dominant, lowland.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 2 | 8 | 15 | 21 | 26 | 15 | 8 | 5 |
Community 1.2
Sedge/Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Switchgrass
This plant community evolved under heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grass and grass-like species included sedges, slender wheatgrass, western wheatgrass, switchgrass, big bluestem, and little bluestem. Other grass and grass-like species included plains bluegrass, rushes, Indiangrass, Canada wildrye, and foxtail barley. Forbs commonly found in this plant community included white sagebrush (cudweed sagewort), goldenrod, and western yarrow. This plant community had similar plant composition to the Sedge/Rhizomatous Wheatgrass/Kentucky Bluegrass (<15%)-Switchgrass Plant Community (2.2) (refer to the plant composition tables). The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of non-native cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome. When compared to the Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass Plant Community (1.1), sedges, slender wheatgrass, and western wheatgrass increased. Big bluestem and Indiangrass decreased, and production of all tall warm-season grasses was reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term.
Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6107, Black Hills Foot Slopes, cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant. Cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant, lowland.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 5 | 13 | 20 | 25 | 18 | 11 | 5 | 3 |
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Continuous season-long grazing without adequate recovery periods; or excessive haying, will convert this Plant Community to the Sedge/Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Switchgrass Plant Community (1.2).
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
Prescribed grazing that with proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery, will shift this plant community to the Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass Plant Community (1.1). Prescribed burning followed by prescribed grazing may also facilitate this plant community shift.
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Burning | |
|---|---|
| Prescribed Grazing |
State 2
Native/Invaded State
The Native/Invaded represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by cool- and warm-season grasses, it can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Native warm- and cool-season species can decline and a corresponding increase in non-native cool-season grasses will occur. Non-Native cool-season grasses will make up less than 15 percent of total annual production. Preliminary studies tend to indicate that when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition a threshold has been crossed to an Invaded State (3.0). These invaded plant communities that are dominated by Kentucky bluegrass will have significantly less cover and diversity of native grasses and forb species (Toledo, D. et al., 2014).
Community 2.1
Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass-Kentucky Bluegrass (<15%)
This plant community phase is similar to the Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass Plant Community (1.1), but it also contains minor amounts of non-native invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome (up to about 15 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 85 percent grass and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs by air-dry weight. The dominant grasses include big bluestem, switchgrass, and Indiangrass. Other grass and grass-like species that occur are sedges, little bluestem, porcupine grass, Canada wildrye, slender wheatgrass, and western wheatgrass. Common forbs are Maximilian sunflower, Indian hemp, goldenrod, showy milkweed, gayfeather, black-eyed Susan, and American licorice. This site does not typically support a large amount of woody species, but rose, leadplant, and snowberry are the most common shrubs. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regard to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6110, Black Hills Foot Slopes, lowland warm-season dominant. Warm-season dominant, lowland.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 2 | 8 | 15 | 21 | 26 | 15 | 8 | 5 |
Community 2.2
Sedge/Rhizomatous Wheatgrass-Kentucky Bluegrass (<15%)-Switchgrass
This plant community is a result of continuous season-long grazing, or excessive haying. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 87 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 3 percent shrubs. Dominant grass and grass-like species include sedges, slender wheatgrass, western wheatgrass, switchgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, big bluestem, and little bluestem. Other grass and grass-like species include plains bluegrass, rushes, Indiangrass, Canada wildrye, and foxtail barley. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include cudweed sagewort, goldenrod, and western yarrow. When compared to the Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass Plant Community (1.1), sedges, slender wheatgrass, and western wheatgrass increase. Big bluestem and Indiangrass decrease, and production of all tall warm-season grasses is reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term.
Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 6. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (kg/hectare) |
Representative value (kg/hectare) |
High (kg/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grass/Grasslike | 3329 | 4013 | 4668 |
| Forb | 219 | 336 | 476 |
| Shrub/Vine | 39 | 90 | 140 |
| Tree | – | 45 | 95 |
| Total | 3587 | 4484 | 5379 |
Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6107, Black Hills Foot Slopes, cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant. Cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant, lowland.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 5 | 13 | 20 | 25 | 18 | 11 | 5 | 3 |
Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2
Continuous season-long grazing without adequate recovery periods; or excessive haying, will convert this Plant Community to the Sedge/Rhizomatous Wheatgrass-Kentucky Bluegrass (<15%) Plant Community (2.2).
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1
Prescribed grazing with proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery, will shift this plant community to the Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass-Kentucky Bluegrass (<15%) Plant Community (2.1). Prescribed burning followed by prescribed grazing may also facilitate this plant community shift.
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Burning | |
|---|---|
| Prescribed Grazing |
State 3
Invaded State
The Invaded State is the result of invasion and dominance of non-native cool-season grass species. This state is characterized by the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome, and an increasing thatch layer that effectively blocks introduction of other plants into the system. Heavy grazing or long-term light grazing (understocked) will tend to result in an increase of smooth brome. Non-use and no fire will tend to benefit Kentucky bluegrass due to an increasing thatch layer that effectively blocks the introduction of other plants into the system. Plant litter accumulation tends to favor the more shade tolerant introduced grass species. The nutrient cycle is also impaired, and the result is typically a higher level of nitrogen which also favors the introduced species. Increasing plant litter decreases the amount of sunlight reaching plant crowns thereby shifting competitive advantage to shade tolerant introduced grass species. Studies indicate that soil biological activity is altered, and this shift apparently exploits the soil microclimate and encourages growth of the introduced grass species. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot cause a reduction in the invasive grass dominance. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. Plant communities dominated by Kentucky bluegrass have significantly less cover and diversity of native grasses and forb species (Toledo, D. et al., 2014). Once the Invaded State (3.0) is well established, even drastic events such as high-intensity fires driven by high fuel loads of litter and thatch are unlikely to result in more than a very short-term reduction of Kentucky bluegrass. Fire can reduce the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, but due to the large amounts of rhizomes in the soil, there is little opportunity for the native species to establish and dominate before Kentucky bluegrass rebounds and again dominates the system.
Community 3.1
Smooth Brome-Kentucky Bluegrass (>30%)
This plant community phase is a result of extended periods of nonuse and no fire. It is characterized by a dominance of smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced, and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth brome, infiltration is moderately reduced, and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced, and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short, as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. In addition to Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome, other species that will be present at varying amounts can include redtop, timothy, and quackgrass. Native species such as western wheatgrass and green needlegrass may be present in minor amounts.
Figure 14. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 7. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (kg/hectare) |
Representative value (kg/hectare) |
High (kg/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grass/Grasslike | 3536 | 4166 | 4764 |
| Forb | 230 | 353 | 504 |
| Shrub/Vine | 45 | 141 | 241 |
| Tree | – | 47 | 95 |
| Total | 3811 | 4707 | 5604 |
Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6106, Black Hills Foot Slopes, lowland cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant, lowland.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 6 | 15 | 20 | 26 | 17 | 9 | 4 | 3 |
Community 3.2
Kentucky Bluegrass/Mountain Rush/Forbs
This plant community is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, Baltic rush, and forbs. The dominance of Kentucky bluegrass is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced, and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced, and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community (1.1). The period that palatability is high is relatively short as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this plant community.
Figure 16. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 8. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (kg/hectare) |
Representative value (kg/hectare) |
High (kg/hectare) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grass/Grasslike | 2303 | 2875 | 3385 |
| Forb | 163 | 420 | 729 |
| Shrub/Vine | – | 50 | 106 |
| Tree | – | 17 | 39 |
| Total | 2466 | 3362 | 4259 |
Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6106, Black Hills Foot Slopes, lowland cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant, lowland.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 6 | 15 | 20 | 26 | 17 | 9 | 4 | 3 |
Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2
Heavy, continuous seasonal grazing; or continuous season-long grazing without adequate recovery periods; and excessive haying, will convert this Plant Community to the Kentucky Bluegrass/Mountain Rush/Forb Plant Community (3.2).
State 4
Disturbed State
This State can be transitioned to from any plant community. The two separate vegetative plant communities, Go-Back and Seeded, are highly variable in nature. They are derived through different management scenarios and are not related successionally. Infiltration, runoff, and soil erosion will vary depending on the vegetation present on the site. The Go-Back Plant Community (4.1) was previously tilled for crop production and then abandoned. The plant community that develops on this site will be greatly influenced by the plant communities that are located on adjacent land. The Seeded Plant Community (4.2) was typically tilled and then seeded to a perennial forage species or mix of species.
Community 4.1
Go-Back
The Go-back plant community can be reached whenever severe mechanical disturbance occurs (e.g., tilled and abandoned cropland). During the early successional stages, the species that mainly dominate the plant community are annual grasses and forbs, later being replaced by both native and introduced perennials. The vegetation on this site varies greatly, sometimes being dominated by bluegrass, smooth brome, timothy, annual brome, cinquefoil, and non-native thistles. Other plants that commonly occur on the site can include western wheatgrass, prickly lettuce, horseweed, foxtail, and sunflowers. Bare ground is prevalent due to the loss of organic matter and lower overall soil health.
Community 4.2
Seeded to Forage Species
The Seeded Plant Community is normally those areas seeded to pubescent or intermediate wheatgrass, alfalfa, switchgrass, or other forage species. For adapted species and expected production, refer to the USDA-NRCS eFOTG for the appropriate Forage Suitability Group description.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
Invasion of non-native cool-season grasses will transition the Reference State (1.0) to the Native/Invaded State (2.0).
Transition T5A
State 1 to 4
Heavy disturbance including tillage; abandoned cropland; or seeding to improved pasture species result in a transition to the Disturbed State (4.0).
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3
Heavy, continuous season-long grazing; excessive haying; or heavy disturbance will transition the Native/Invaded State (2.0) to the Invaded State (3.0). Long-term non-use and no fire will also cause the Native/Invaded State (2.0) to transition to the Invaded State (3.0).
Transition T5A
State 2 to 4
Heavy disturbance including tillage; abandoned cropland; or seeding to improved pasture species result in a transition to the Disturbed State (4.0).
Transition T3A
State 3 to 2
Removal of disturbances; possibly prescribed burning to suppress non-native cool-season grass; and long-term prescribed grazing with proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and deferment that provides adequate recovery time. This may result in a transition from the Invaded State (3.0) to the Native/Invaded State (2.0). This will likely take a long period of time and recovery may not be attainable. Success depends on whether native reproductive propagules remain intact on the site.
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Burning | |
|---|---|
| Prescribed Grazing |
Transition T5A
State 3 to 4
Heavy disturbance including tillage; abandoned cropland; or seeding to improved pasture species result in a transition to the Disturbed State (4.0).
Additional community tables
Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (kg/hectare) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Tall Warm-Season Grasses | 1614–3228 | ||||
| big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | 1076–2421 | – | ||
| Indiangrass | SONU2 | Sorghastrum nutans | 161–1076 | – | ||
| switchgrass | PAVI2 | Panicum virgatum | 161–1076 | – | ||
| prairie cordgrass | SPPE | Spartina pectinata | 54–538 | – | ||
| spiked muhly | MUGL3 | Muhlenbergia glomerata | 0–161 | – | ||
| 2 | Cool-Season Bunchgrass | 269–807 | ||||
| porcupinegrass | HESP11 | Hesperostipa spartea | 108–430 | – | ||
| Canada wildrye | ELCA4 | Elymus canadensis | 108–430 | – | ||
| slender wheatgrass | ELTR7 | Elymus trachycaulus | 54–269 | – | ||
| plains bluegrass | POAR3 | Poa arida | 54–161 | – | ||
| foxtail barley | HOJU | Hordeum jubatum | 0–108 | – | ||
| fowl bluegrass | POPA2 | Poa palustris | 0–108 | – | ||
| 3 | Rhizomatous Wheatgrass | 54–269 | ||||
| western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 0–269 | – | ||
| thickspike wheatgrass | ELLAL | Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus | 0–108 | – | ||
| 4 | Mid- Warm-Season Grasses | 54–269 | ||||
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 54–269 | – | ||
| sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 0–269 | – | ||
| 5 | Other Native Grasses | 161–538 | ||||
| northern reedgrass | CASTI3 | Calamagrostis stricta ssp. inexpansa | 54–269 | – | ||
| bluejoint | CACA4 | Calamagrostis canadensis | 54–269 | – | ||
| Grass, perennial | 2GP | Grass, perennial | 0–269 | – | ||
| prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 54–161 | – | ||
| saltgrass | DISP | Distichlis spicata | 0–108 | – | ||
| 6 | Grass-Likes | 269–807 | ||||
| clustered field sedge | CAPR5 | Carex praegracilis | 269–538 | – | ||
| Nebraska sedge | CANE2 | Carex nebrascensis | 0–377 | – | ||
| spike sedge | CANA2 | Carex nardina | 0–269 | – | ||
| Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–269 | – | ||
| 7 | Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses | – | ||||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 8 | Forbs | 269–538 | ||||
| Maximilian sunflower | HEMA2 | Helianthus maximiliani | 54–161 | – | ||
| Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 54–161 | – | ||
| Indianhemp | APCA | Apocynum cannabinum | 0–108 | – | ||
| sticky purple geranium | GEVI2 | Geranium viscosissimum | 0–108 | – | ||
| western dock | RUAQ | Rumex aquaticus | 54–108 | – | ||
| western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 54–108 | – | ||
| purple prairie clover | DAPU5 | Dalea purpurea | 54–108 | – | ||
| Rocky Mountain iris | IRMI | Iris missouriensis | 0–108 | – | ||
| scurfpea | PSORA2 | Psoralidium | 0–108 | – | ||
| showy milkweed | ASSP | Asclepias speciosa | 54–108 | – | ||
| cinquefoil | POTEN | Potentilla | 54–108 | – | ||
| white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 54–108 | – | ||
| dotted blazing star | LIPU | Liatris punctata | 54–108 | – | ||
| goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 54–108 | – | ||
| American licorice | GLLE3 | Glycyrrhiza lepidota | 54–108 | – | ||
| blackeyed Susan | RUHI2 | Rudbeckia hirta | 0–108 | – | ||
| blue-eyed grass | SISYR | Sisyrinchium | 0–54 | – | ||
| smooth horsetail | EQLA | Equisetum laevigatum | 0–54 | – | ||
| stickseed | HACKE | Hackelia | 0–54 | – | ||
| stiff sunflower | HEPA19 | Helianthus pauciflorus | 0–54 | – | ||
| Canadian anemone | ANCA8 | Anemone canadensis | 0–54 | – | ||
| mint | MENTH | Mentha | 0–54 | – | ||
| northern bedstraw | GABO2 | Galium boreale | 0–54 | – | ||
| palespike lobelia | LOSP | Lobelia spicata | 0–54 | – | ||
| upright prairie coneflower | RACO3 | Ratibida columnifera | 0–54 | – | ||
| white prairie aster | SYFA | Symphyotrichum falcatum | 0–54 | – | ||
| Virginia strawberry | FRVI | Fragaria virginiana | 0–54 | – | ||
| Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 0–54 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 9 | Shrubs | 54–269 | ||||
| western snowberry | SYOC | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | 0–269 | – | ||
| chokecherry | PRVI | Prunus virginiana | 0–269 | – | ||
| Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–161 | – | ||
| leadplant | AMCA6 | Amorpha canescens | 0–161 | – | ||
| rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 54–108 | – | ||
|
Tree
|
||||||
| 10 | Trees | 0–108 | ||||
| willow | SALIX | Salix | 0–108 | – | ||
Table 10. Community 2.2 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (kg/hectare) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Tall Warm-Season Grasses | 448–897 | ||||
| switchgrass | PAVI2 | Panicum virgatum | 135–897 | – | ||
| big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | 90–673 | – | ||
| prairie cordgrass | SPPE | Spartina pectinata | 45–224 | – | ||
| Indiangrass | SONU2 | Sorghastrum nutans | 0–45 | – | ||
| 2 | Cool-Season Bunchgrass | 224–673 | ||||
| slender wheatgrass | ELTR7 | Elymus trachycaulus | 135–897 | – | ||
| plains bluegrass | POAR3 | Poa arida | 90–448 | – | ||
| foxtail barley | HOJU | Hordeum jubatum | 45–359 | – | ||
| Canada wildrye | ELCA4 | Elymus canadensis | 0–224 | – | ||
| porcupinegrass | HESP11 | Hesperostipa spartea | 0–135 | – | ||
| fowl bluegrass | POPA2 | Poa palustris | 0–90 | – | ||
| 3 | Rhizomatous Wheatgrass | 224–897 | ||||
| western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 135–897 | – | ||
| thickspike wheatgrass | ELLAL | Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus | 0–224 | – | ||
| 4 | Mid- Warm-Season Grasses | 90–448 | ||||
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 90–448 | – | ||
| sideoats grama | BOCU | Bouteloua curtipendula | 0–90 | – | ||
| 5 | Other Native Grasses | 45–224 | ||||
| Grass, perennial | 2GP | Grass, perennial | 0–224 | – | ||
| northern reedgrass | CASTI3 | Calamagrostis stricta ssp. inexpansa | 0–90 | – | ||
| bluejoint | CACA4 | Calamagrostis canadensis | 0–90 | – | ||
| reed canarygrass | PHAR3 | Phalaris arundinacea | 0–90 | – | ||
| prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 45–90 | – | ||
| saltgrass | DISP | Distichlis spicata | 0–45 | – | ||
| 6 | Grass-Like | 448–1345 | ||||
| Nebraska sedge | CANE2 | Carex nebrascensis | 90–673 | – | ||
| clustered field sedge | CAPR5 | Carex praegracilis | 90–448 | – | ||
| Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–224 | – | ||
| spike sedge | CANA2 | Carex nardina | 0–224 | – | ||
| 7 | Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses | 6–22 | ||||
| Kentucky bluegrass | POPR | Poa pratensis | 224–897 | – | ||
| smooth brome | BRIN2 | Bromus inermis | 45–448 | – | ||
| timothy | PHPR3 | Phleum pratense | 0–448 | – | ||
| quackgrass | ELRE4 | Elymus repens | 0–224 | – | ||
| creeping bentgrass | AGST2 | Agrostis stolonifera | 0–224 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 8 | Forbs | 224–448 | ||||
| white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 45–135 | – | ||
| goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 45–135 | – | ||
| western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 45–135 | – | ||
| Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 45–135 | – | ||
| Forb, introduced | 2FI | Forb, introduced | 45–135 | – | ||
| Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 45–90 | – | ||
| Rocky Mountain iris | IRMI | Iris missouriensis | 0–90 | – | ||
| showy milkweed | ASSP | Asclepias speciosa | 45–90 | – | ||
| Indianhemp | APCA | Apocynum cannabinum | 0–90 | – | ||
| American licorice | GLLE3 | Glycyrrhiza lepidota | 0–90 | – | ||
| cinquefoil | POTEN | Potentilla | 45–90 | – | ||
| Maximilian sunflower | HEMA2 | Helianthus maximiliani | 0–45 | – | ||
| upright prairie coneflower | RACO3 | Ratibida columnifera | 0–45 | – | ||
| purple prairie clover | DAPU5 | Dalea purpurea | 0–45 | – | ||
| smooth horsetail | EQLA | Equisetum laevigatum | 0–45 | – | ||
| dotted blazing star | LIPU | Liatris punctata | 0–45 | – | ||
| western dock | RUAQ | Rumex aquaticus | 0–45 | – | ||
| scurfpea | PSORA2 | Psoralidium | 0–45 | – | ||
| white prairie aster | SYFA | Symphyotrichum falcatum | 0–45 | – | ||
| sticky purple geranium | GEVI2 | Geranium viscosissimum | 0–45 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 9 | Shrubs | 45–135 | ||||
| rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 45–90 | – | ||
| chokecherry | PRVI | Prunus virginiana | 0–90 | – | ||
| Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–90 | – | ||
| western snowberry | SYOC | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | 0–45 | – | ||
| leadplant | AMCA6 | Amorpha canescens | 0–45 | – | ||
|
Tree
|
||||||
| 10 | Trees | 0–90 | ||||
| willow | SALIX | Salix | 0–90 | – | ||
Table 11. Community 3.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (kg/hectare) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Tall Warm-Season Grasses | 0–235 | ||||
| big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | 0–235 | – | ||
| switchgrass | PAVI2 | Panicum virgatum | 0–141 | – | ||
| prairie cordgrass | SPPE | Spartina pectinata | 0–47 | – | ||
| 2 | Cool-Season Bunchgrass | 47–471 | ||||
| foxtail barley | HOJU | Hordeum jubatum | 47–471 | – | ||
| Canada wildrye | ELCA4 | Elymus canadensis | 0–141 | – | ||
| plains bluegrass | POAR3 | Poa arida | 0–141 | – | ||
| slender wheatgrass | ELTR7 | Elymus trachycaulus | 0–141 | – | ||
| fowl bluegrass | POPA2 | Poa palustris | 0–47 | – | ||
| 3 | Rhizomatous Wheatgrass | 0–235 | ||||
| western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 0–235 | – | ||
| thickspike wheatgrass | ELLAL | Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus | 0–94 | – | ||
| 4 | Mid- Warm-Season Grasses | 0–235 | ||||
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 0–235 | – | ||
| 5 | Other Native Grasses | 0–235 | ||||
| Grass, perennial | 2GP | Grass, perennial | 0–235 | – | ||
| reed canarygrass | PHAR3 | Phalaris arundinacea | 0–94 | – | ||
| prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 0–47 | – | ||
| saltgrass | DISP | Distichlis spicata | 0–47 | – | ||
| 6 | Grass-Likes | 235–942 | ||||
| clustered field sedge | CAPR5 | Carex praegracilis | 94–471 | – | ||
| Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–235 | – | ||
| Nebraska sedge | CANE2 | Carex nebrascensis | 0–141 | – | ||
| spike sedge | CANA2 | Carex nardina | 0–94 | – | ||
| 7 | Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses | 1412–2825 | ||||
| Kentucky bluegrass | POPR | Poa pratensis | 141–942 | – | ||
| smooth brome | BRIN2 | Bromus inermis | 706–942 | – | ||
| timothy | PHPR3 | Phleum pratense | 0–471 | – | ||
| quackgrass | ELRE4 | Elymus repens | 0–377 | – | ||
| creeping bentgrass | AGST2 | Agrostis stolonifera | 0–377 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 8 | Forbs | 235–471 | ||||
| Forb, introduced | 2FI | Forb, introduced | 47–235 | – | ||
| white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 47–188 | – | ||
| goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 47–188 | – | ||
| western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 47–188 | – | ||
| Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 0–141 | – | ||
| showy milkweed | ASSP | Asclepias speciosa | 47–141 | – | ||
| Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 47–141 | – | ||
| Indianhemp | APCA | Apocynum cannabinum | 0–94 | – | ||
| American licorice | GLLE3 | Glycyrrhiza lepidota | 0–94 | – | ||
| cinquefoil | POTEN | Potentilla | 47–94 | – | ||
| smooth horsetail | EQLA | Equisetum laevigatum | 0–47 | – | ||
| Rocky Mountain iris | IRMI | Iris missouriensis | 0–47 | – | ||
| scurfpea | PSORA2 | Psoralidium | 0–47 | – | ||
| white prairie aster | SYFA | Symphyotrichum falcatum | 0–47 | – | ||
| sticky purple geranium | GEVI2 | Geranium viscosissimum | 0–47 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 9 | Shrubs | 47–235 | ||||
| western snowberry | SYOC | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | 0–235 | – | ||
| chokecherry | PRVI | Prunus virginiana | 0–94 | – | ||
| Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–94 | – | ||
| rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 47–94 | – | ||
|
Tree
|
||||||
| 10 | Trees | 0–94 | ||||
| willow | SALIX | Salix | 0–94 | – | ||
Table 12. Community 3.2 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (kg/hectare) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Tall Warm-Season Grasses | 34–168 | ||||
| prairie cordgrass | SPPE | Spartina pectinata | 34–168 | – | ||
| 2 | Cool-Season Bunchgrass | 34–336 | ||||
| foxtail barley | HOJU | Hordeum jubatum | 34–336 | – | ||
| fowl bluegrass | POPA2 | Poa palustris | 0–34 | – | ||
| 3 | Rhizomatous Wheatgrass | 0–101 | ||||
| western wheatgrass | PASM | Pascopyrum smithii | 0–101 | – | ||
| thickspike wheatgrass | ELLAL | Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus | 0–34 | – | ||
| 4 | Mid- Warm-Season Grasses | – | ||||
| 5 | Other Native Grasses | 0–168 | ||||
| Grass, perennial | 2GP | Grass, perennial | 0–168 | – | ||
| saltgrass | DISP | Distichlis spicata | 0–101 | – | ||
| reed canarygrass | PHAR3 | Phalaris arundinacea | 0–67 | – | ||
| prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 0–34 | – | ||
| 6 | Grass-Likes | 168–841 | ||||
| clustered field sedge | CAPR5 | Carex praegracilis | 0–269 | – | ||
| Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–168 | – | ||
| spike sedge | CANA2 | Carex nardina | 0–67 | – | ||
| 7 | Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses | 841–2018 | ||||
| Kentucky bluegrass | POPR | Poa pratensis | 673–1681 | – | ||
| creeping bentgrass | AGST2 | Agrostis stolonifera | 0–504 | – | ||
| smooth brome | BRIN2 | Bromus inermis | 34–504 | – | ||
| quackgrass | ELRE4 | Elymus repens | 0–404 | – | ||
| timothy | PHPR3 | Phleum pratense | 0–336 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 8 | Forbs | 168–673 | ||||
| Forb, introduced | 2FI | Forb, introduced | 34–336 | – | ||
| white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 34–168 | – | ||
| goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 34–168 | – | ||
| Cuman ragweed | AMPS | Ambrosia psilostachya | 34–168 | – | ||
| western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 34–168 | – | ||
| cinquefoil | POTEN | Potentilla | 34–135 | – | ||
| Rocky Mountain iris | IRMI | Iris missouriensis | 0–135 | – | ||
| showy milkweed | ASSP | Asclepias speciosa | 34–101 | – | ||
| Forb, native | 2FN | Forb, native | 0–67 | – | ||
| Indianhemp | APCA | Apocynum cannabinum | 0–67 | – | ||
| white prairie aster | SYFA | Symphyotrichum falcatum | 0–67 | – | ||
| American licorice | GLLE3 | Glycyrrhiza lepidota | 0–67 | – | ||
| sticky purple geranium | GEVI2 | Geranium viscosissimum | 0–34 | – | ||
| smooth horsetail | EQLA | Equisetum laevigatum | 0–34 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 9 | Shrubs | 0–101 | ||||
| rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 0–34 | – | ||
| western snowberry | SYOC | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | 0–34 | – | ||
| chokecherry | PRVI | Prunus virginiana | 0–34 | – | ||
| Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–34 | – | ||
|
Tree
|
||||||
| 10 | Trees | 0–34 | ||||
| willow | SALIX | Salix | 0–34 | – | ||
Interpretations
Animal community
Wildlife Interpretations:
MLRA 61 lies within the drier portion of the northern mixed-grass prairie ecosystem where sagebrush steppes to the west yield to grassland steppes to the east. Prior to European settlement, this area consisted of diverse grass- and shrubland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional instream wetlands and woody riparian corridors. These habitats provided critical life cycle components for many users. Many species of grassland birds, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn were among the inhabitants adapted to this semi-arid region. Roaming herbivores, as well as several small mammal and insect species, were the primary consumers linking the grassland resources to predators such as the gray wolf, mountain lion, and grizzly bear, and smaller carnivores such as the coyote, bobcat, fox, and raptors. The prairie dog was once abundant; however, the species remains a keystone species within its range. The black-footed ferret, burrowing owl, ferruginous hawk, mountain plover, and swift fox were associated with prairie dog complexes.
Historically, the northern mixed-grass prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbance factors either singly or in combination. Following European settlement, livestock grazing, cropland conversion, elimination of fire, energy development, and other anthropogenic factors influenced species composition and abundance. Introduced and invasive species further impacted plant and animal communities. The bison was a historical keystone species but had been extirpated in this area as a free-ranging herbivore. The loss of the bison and reduction of prairie dog populations and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native plant communities and altered wildlife habitats. Human development has reduced habitat quality for area-sensitive species.
Within MLRA 61, the Subirrigated ecological site provides upland grassland cover with an associated forb component. It was typically part of an expansive grassland landscape that included combinations of Clayey, Loamy, Shallow, Stony Hills, Terrace, and Lowland ecological sites.
The Subirrigated site provides habitat for species requiring unfragmented grassland. Important habitat features, and components found commonly or exclusively on this site may include sharp-tailed grouse leks; upland nesting habitat for grassland birds, forbs and insects for brood habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores. Many grassland and shrub steppe nesting bird populations are declining. Extirpated species include free-ranging American bison, grizzly bear, gray wolf, black-footed ferret, mountain plover, Rocky Mountain locust, and swift fox.
Grazing Interpretations:
The following list suggests annual, initial stocking rates for average growing conditions. These estimates are conservative and should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. Commonly, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Therefore, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. More accurate estimates of carrying capacity should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. In consultation with the land manager, a more intensive grazing management program that results in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity may be developed.
The following suggested initial stocking rates are based on 912 lb/acre (air-dry weight) per animal-unit-month (AUM) with a 25 percent harvest efficiency of preferred and desirable forage species (refer to USDA-NRCS, National Range and Pasture Handbook). An AUM is defined as the equivalent amount of forage required by a 1,000-pound cow, with or without calf, for one month.
Plant Community: Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass (1.1)
Average Production (lb/acre, air-dry): 4,800
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 1.32
Plant Community: Sedge/Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Switchgrass (1.2)
Average Production (lb/acre, air-dry): 4,000
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 1.10
Plant Community: Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Indiangrass-Kentucky Bluegrass (<15%) (2.1)
Average Production (lb/acre, air-dry): 4,800
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 1.32
Plant Community: Sedge/Rhizomatous Wheatgrass-Kentucky Bluegrass (<15%)-Switchgrass (2.2)
Average Production (lb/acre, air-dry): 4,000
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 1.10
Plant Community: Smooth Brome-Kentucky Bluegrass (>30%) (3.1)
Average Production (lb/acre, air-dry): 4,200*
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 1.15*
*Plant Community: Kentucky Bluegrass /Mountain Rush/Forbs (3.2)
Average Production (lb/acre, air-dry): 3,000*
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 0.82*
Plant Community: All other plant communities identified in this document have variable annual production values and require onsite sampling to determine initial stocking rates.
* Total annual production and stocking rates are highly variable and require onsite sampling.
Total onsite annual production may contain vegetation deemed undesirable or untargeted by the grazing animal. Therefore, AUM values may need to be reduced to reflect only preferred or desirable forage species.
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage for livestock. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock likely has insufficient protein to meet livestock requirements. Added protein allows ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.
Hydrological functions
Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic groups B and D. Infiltration and runoff potential for this site varies from moderate to high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by shortgrasses, bluegrass, or smooth brome will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff. Refer to the USDA-NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Part 630, for hydrologic soil groups, runoff quantities, and hydrologic curves.
Recreational uses
This site provides opportunities for hunting, hiking, photography, and bird watching. The wide variety of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wood products
No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.
Other products
Harvesting the seeds of native plants can provide additional income on this site.
Other information
Revision Notes: “Previously Approved” Provisional
This provisional ecological site description (ESD) has passed quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) to ensure the it meets the 2014 NESH standards for a “Provisional” ecological site description.
This ecological site description (ESD) is an updated “Previously Approved” ESD that represented a first-generation tier of documentation that met all requirements as an “Approved” ESD as laid out in the 1997 National Range and Pasture Handbook (NRPH). The requirements for approved status changed with the release of the 2014 National Ecological Site Handbook (NESH). The previously approved document fully described the reference state and community phase in the state-and-transition model. All other alternative states were at least described in narrative form. The “Previously Approved” ESD has been field-tested for a minimum of five years and is a proven functional document for conservation planning. The “Previously Approved” ESD may not contain all tabular and narrative entries as required in the current “Approved” level of documentation, but it is expected this ESD will continue refinement toward the current “Approved” status.
Site Development and Testing Plan
Future work, as described in an official project plan, is necessary to validate the information in this provisional ecological site description. The plan will include field activities for low-, medium-, and high-intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of the data. Annual field reviews should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists. Final field review, peer review, quality control, and quality assurance reviews are required to produce the final document.
Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Cynthia Englebert, Range Management Specialist, Forest Service; George Gamblin, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Ryan Murray, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Cheryl Nielsen, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; L. Michael Stirling, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Jim Westerman, Soil Scientist, NRCS.
Other references
Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, and W.H McNab. 2007. Ecological subregions: Sections and subsections of the conterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76D. https://www.fs.fed.us/research/publications/misc/73326-wo-gtr-76d-cleland2007.pdf (accessed 31 January 2019).
Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deep-water habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-79/31.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2018.
EPA level III and level IV ecoregions of the conterminous United States. https://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- conterminous-united-states (accessed 26 April 2018).
High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. 2018. http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/ (accessed 6 April 2018).
Larson, Gary E. and James R. Johnson. 1999. Plants of the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. South Dakota State University, College of Agriculture and Biological Sciences and Agriculture Experiment Station, Bulletin 732, Brookings, SD.
Toledo, D., M. Sanderson, K. Spaeth, J. Hendrickson, and J. Printz. 2014. Extent of Kentucky bluegrass and its effect on native plant species diversity and ecosystem services in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. Invasive Plant Science and Management. 7(4):543–522. Weed Science Society of America.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2018. Electronic field office technical guide. https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov (accessed 24 September 2018).
Soil Survey Staff. 2018. Official soil series descriptions. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/home/?cid=nrcs142p2_053587 (accessed 20 December 2018).
Soil Survey Staff. 2018. Web Soil Survey. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx (accessed 20 December 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. Agriculture Handbook 296. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_050898.pdf (accessed 17 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2014. National ecological site handbook, 1st ed. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcseprd1291232 (accessed 27 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2012. National engineering handbook, part 630. Hydrology chapters from e-Directives. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/viewerFS.aspx?hid=21422 (accessed 17 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2018. Climate data. National Water and Climate Center. http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/ (accessed 2 December 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 1997. National range and pasture handbook, rev. 1, 2003. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1043055.pdf (accessed 7 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2018. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov (accessed 25 May 2018.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2018. PLANTS database. National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC. http://plants.usda.gov (accessed 27 December 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2007. National engineering handbook, part 654. Rosgen Stream Classification Technique – Supplemental Materials, Technical Supplement 3E. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17833.wba (accessed 4 March 2019).
Contributors
Stan C. Boltz
Rick L. Peterson
Approval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 7/17/2024
Acknowledgments
All ecological sites were written to the Provisional Level by Rick L. Peterson, ESS, Rapid City, SSO in FY20.
The ESDs were reviewed for quality control by Emily Helms, John Hartung, Mitch Faulkner, and Ryan Murray.
All ecological sites were then reviewed and approved at the Provisional Level by David Kraft, Regional ESS, Salina, KS in September 2020.
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Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
| Author(s)/participant(s) | Stan Boltz |
|---|---|
| Contact for lead author | Stan Boltz, stanley.boltz@sd.usda.gov, 605-352-1236 |
| Date | 09/30/2009 |
| Approved by | Suzanne Mayne-Kinney |
| Approval date | |
| Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
-
Number and extent of rills:
None. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
None. -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is typically less than 5 percent. -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Litter falls in place, and is in contact with the soil surface. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil aggregate stability ratings typically 5 to 6, normally 6. Surface organic matter adheres to the soil surface. Soil surface fragments will typically retain structure indefinitely when dipped in distilled water. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
A-horizon should be 10 to 30 inches thick with black to very dark gray colors when moist. Structure typically is medium to fine granular in the upper A-horizon. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Deep rooted species (mid and tall rhizomatous cool- and warm-season grasses and grass-likes) with fine and coarse roots positively influences infiltration. -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None – when dry, B horizons can be hard and appear to be compacted, but no platy structure will be present. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Tall, warm-season grasses >>Sub-dominant:
Mid and tall, cool-season grasses > grass-like species >Other:
Mid, warm-season grasses = forbs > shrubsAdditional:
Other grasses occur in other functional groups in minor amounts. -
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little evidence of decadence or mortality. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Litter cover 80 to 90 percent and in contact with soil surface. -
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Total annual production ranges from 4,000 to 5,600 pounds/acre, with the reference value being 4,800 pounds/acre (air-dry basis). -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
State and local noxious weeds, Kentucky bluegrass – Russian olive can dominate this site in localized areas. -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
Perennial grasses and grass-likes should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers.
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The Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.
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