Ecological site R066XY033NE

3. Native/Invaded Grass State

4. Invaded Woody State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)

1.2. Degraded Native Grass Community

T1A	-	Heavy grazing with wildfire, drought, or disturbance, wind erosion.
T1B	-	Heavy grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
T1C	-	Woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.
T1D	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R2A	-	Removal of disturbance with long-term (> 10 years) prescribed grazing.
R2B	-	Removal of disturbance with long-term (>10 years) prescribed grazing.
R2C	-	Removal of disturbance with long-term (> 10 years) prescribed grazing.
R3A	-	Long-term (> 15 years) prescribed grazing which includes adequate growing season recovery periods. This restoration may not be feasible.
T3A	-	Heavy grazing with wildfire, multi-year drought, or other disturbance, wind erosion.
T3B	-	Woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.
T3C	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R4A	-	Prescribed burning, timber harvest, brush management.
R4B	-	Prescribed burning, timber harvest, brush management.
R4C	-	Prescribed burning, timber harvest, brush management.
T5A	-	Heavy grazing with wildfire, drought, or disturbance, wind erosion.
T5B	-	Woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reference Community

1.3. At-Risk Community

1.4. Excessive Litter Community

1.1A	-	Continuous seasonal, continuous season long grazing, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
1.1B	-	Prolonged absence (>5 years) of herbivory and fire.
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with adequate, growing season recovery periods.
1.2B	-	Continued seasonal, continuous, season long, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
1.2C	-	Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire.
1.3A	-	Prescribed grazing with adequate, growing season recovery periods.
1.4A	-	Prescribed grazing, prescribed burning.
1.4B	-	Prescribed grazing, prescribed burning.
1.4C	-	Heavy, continuous season long grazing.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Active Blowout Community

2.2. Early Seral Community

2.1A	-	Prescribed grazing with concentrated, short-term animal impact..
2.2A	-	Heavy grazing, drought, wildfire, grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods.

State 1
Reference State

Figure 11. Sands 18-22 PZ Ecological Site, Reference State (1), Brown County, Nebraska.

The Reference State (1) describes the range of vegetative community phases that occur on the Sands 18-22" PZ ecological site where the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes is mostly intact. The Reference State developed under the combined influences of climatic conditions, periodic fire activity, grazing by large herbivores, and impacts from small mammals and insects. High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production and overall soil quality. The Reference State includes the Reference Community (1.1), the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2), the At-Risk Community (1.3), and the Excessive Litter Community (1.4). The Reference Community serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or closely mimicked by management practices. The Degraded Native Grass and At-Risk Communities result from management actions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community. The Excessive Litter Community occurs when herbivory and fire are eliminated from the landscape. In the absence of fire, all community phases are susceptible to eastern redcedar invasion and subject to crossing a threshold into the Invaded Woody State (4).

Dominant plant species

sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), grass

Community 1.1
Reference Community

Figure 12. Sands 18-22 PZ Ecological Site, Reference Community, (1.1), Brown County, Nebraska.

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference or Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needlegrass (Andropogon hallii-Calamovilfa longifolia-Schizachyrium scoparium-Hesperostipa) Community (1.1). This plant community serves as a description of the native plant community that occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or are closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and to fire and grazing events. This site developed with grazing by large herbivores and is well suited for grazing by domestic livestock. This plant community consists chiefly of warm-season, tall- and midgrasses. Principle dominants are sand bluestem, prairie sandreed, and little bluestem. Grasses of secondary importance are needle and thread, porcupinegrass, switchgrass, sand dropseed, and hairy or blue grama. Sedges occur in the understory. Forbs and shrubs such as stiff sunflower, leadplant, rose, and sandcherry are significant. This plant community is about 80 to 90 percent grasses, 5 to10 percent forbs, and 1 to 5 percent shrubs by weight. Natural fire played a significant role in the succession of this site by limiting the extent of eastern redcedar. Wildfires have been actively controlled in recent times, allowing eastern redcedar encroachment. This plant community can be found on areas that are managed with prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, and may be found on areas receiving occasional periods of short-term rest. This resilient community is well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. Plant diversity promotes strong tolerance to drought, site and soil stability, a functional hydrologic cycle, and a high degree of biological integrity. These factors create a suitable environment for a healthy and sustainable plant community.

Dominant plant species

sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
porcupinegrass (Hesperostipa spartea), grass

Figure 13. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1670	2058	2630
Forb	110	173	250
Shrub/Vine	20	69	120
Total	1800	2300	3000

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6637, Eroded Tableland, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	8	15	24	23	15	5	5

Community 1.2
Degraded Native Grass Community

Figure 15. Sands 18-22 PZ Ecological Site, Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2), Brown County, Nebraska.

The Degraded Native Grass or Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed (Andropogon hallii-Calamovilfa longifolia) Community (1.2) develops under livestock grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. This community will also develop with annual haying during the same growth stage each year or haying with inadequate growing season recovery time. The most palatable plants from the Reference Community (1.1) are present but occur in lesser amounts. Warm-season grasses still comprise a significant component of this plant community. The composition of the plant community contributes to the high level of production during the summer months. These warm-season grasses cure well for winter forage stockpiling. Dominant grasses include sand bluestem, little bluestem, and prairie sandreed. Grasses of secondary importance include blue grama, hairy grama, switchgrass, sand dropseed, and Scribner’s rosette grass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include stiff sunflower, heath aster, and goldenrod. Indiangrass is no longer present and sand bluestem, cool-season bunchgrasses, and perennial forbs are present in lesser amounts than in the Reference Community. Eastern redcedar may have begun to encroach into the grassland. This community is about 75 to 85 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 15 percent forbs, 5 to 10 percent shrubs, and 0 to 3 percent trees. This plant community phase is somewhat resistant to change; however, management which is designed to favor warm-season, tall- and midgrasses can move this community to the Reference Community while continued grazing with inadequate recovery periods or annual haying during the same stage of plant growth will move this community to the At-Risk Community (1.3). The resiliency of this community is dependent on the type of management strategy implemented and the intensity and duration of the disturbance.

Dominant plant species

sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Scribner's rosette grass (Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum), grass

Figure 16. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1310	1620	2105
Forb	95	200	325
Shrub/Vine	95	150	205
Tree	0	30	65
Total	1500	2000	2700

Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6637, Eroded Tableland, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	8	15	24	23	15	5	5

Community 1.3
At-Risk Community

Figure 18. Sands 18-22 PZ Ecological Site, At-Risk Community (1.3), Brown County, Nebraska.

The At-Risk or Prairie Sandreed/Cuman Ragweed (Calamovilfa longifolia/Ambrosia psilostachya) Community (1.3) occurs when heavy grazing is combined with continued seasonal grazing or continuous season-long that begins early in the growing season. This community can also develop under rotational grazing with inadequate recovery periods during the growing season. The plant community contains a mix of warm-season and cool-season grasses, with an increase of forbs and shrubs as compared to the Reference Community (1.1) and the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2). The percent ground cover and plant density increases as compared to the Reference Community due to the significant increase in warm-season shortgrasses. The dominant grasses include prairie sandreed, sand dropseed, and blue grama. Other grasses present include hairy grama and Scribner’s rosette grass. Forbs include Cuman ragweed, tarragon, four-point evening primrose, and blazing star. Typically, there is an increase in the number of shrubs, especially snowberry, soapweed yucca, and rose. Non-native cool-season plants such as Kentucky bluegrass have begun to invade the site. With the exception of an increase in prairie sandreed, the warm-season, mid- and tallgrasses such as sand bluestem, switchgrass, and little bluestem have decreased. This community is about 65 to 85 percent grasses and grass-likes, 10 to 25 percent forbs, 5 to 10 percent shrubs, and 0 to 3 percent trees. The soil surface remains intact. Compared to the Reference Community, the total annual production is reduced by 25 to 35 percent. Plant diversity and the amount of litter is also lower. This plant community is considered stable but is at-risk to transition to another state when drought or overgrazing occurs. The resiliency of this plant community is moderate and depends upon the intensity and duration of disturbance. Infiltration and runoff are not greatly impacted due to the sandy nature of the soil.

Dominant plant species

prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass

Figure 19. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	785	1101	1295
Forb	145	263	400
Shrub/Vine	70	113	155
Tree	0	23	50
Total	1000	1500	1900

Figure 20. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6636, Eroded Tableland, cool-season/warm-season codominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	10	20	25	20	10	5	5

Community 1.4
Excessive Litter Community

The Excessive Litter Community (1.4) develops when the natural disturbances of livestock grazing and fire have been removed from the land for a prolonged period of time (more than five years). Periodic fire may extend the amount of time it will take to reach this community. The litter amount has clearly increased and few or no sedges or understory shortgrasses are present. As the undisturbed duff layer deepens, infiltration of the precipitation is interrupted and evaporation increases significantly, simulating drought-like conditions. Typically, bunchgrasses have developed dead centers and rhizomatous grasses have formed small colonies due to a lack of tiller stimulation. Plant frequency and production have decreased. Pedestalling is usually evident. The dominant grasses include sand bluestem, little bluestem, and needle and thread. Other grasses present may include sand dropseed, switchgrass, and prairie Junegrass. The dominant forbs typically include Cuman ragweed, tarragon, blazing stars, and spiny phlox. The shrubs present include rose, leadplant and western sandcherry. The potential vegetation is 85 to 95 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 1 to 5 percent forbs, and 1 to 5 percent shrubs. As compared to the Reference Community (1.1), plant diversity has decreased and native plants tend to occur in individual colonies. This plant community has a high amount of litter covering the soil between widely dispersed mature plants. As the litter layer thickens, the health and vigor of native, warm-season, tall- and midgrasses declines. Soil erosion is low and infiltration and runoff are not significantly different than the Reference Community. This plant community will change rapidly when grazing or fire is returned to the landscape.

Dominant plant species

sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
lemon scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum), other herbaceous
prairie sunflower (Helianthus petiolaris), other herbaceous

Figure 21. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1235	1674	1932
Forb	65	90	230
Shrub/Vine	0	36	115
Tree	0	0	23
Total	1300	1800	2300

Figure 22. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6634, Eroded Tableland, cool-season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	15	28	30	10	2	5	5	0	0

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Reference Community

Degraded Native Grass Community

A shift from the Reference Community (1.1) to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) occurs with long-term (more than ten years) continuous season-long grazing, continuous seasonal grazing in the summer, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing-season recovery periods. The shift will also occur with repetitive haying without allowing adequate recovery periods during the growing season or annual haying during the same time in the growth season each year.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.4

Prolonged interruption (more than five years) of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will move the Reference Community (1.1) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Degraded Native Grass Community

Reference Community

Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods during the growing season will return the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the Reference Community (1.1). Appropriately timed prescribed fire may accelerate this process. Annual haying at a different time in the growing season or biennial haying will also return the community to the Reference Community.

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Degraded Native Grass Community

At-Risk Community

A shift from the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the At-Risk Community (1.3) occurs with continued seasonal grazing, continuous season-long grazing, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery time. Annual haying during the same time during the growing season will also cause this change.

Pathway 1.2C
Community 1.2 to 1.4

Prolonged interruption of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will move the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

At-Risk Community

Degraded Native Grass Community

Prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods will return the At-Risk Community (1.3) to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2). Appropriately timed prescribed fire may accelerate this process. Annual haying during a different point in the growing season or biennial haying will also return the community to the Reference Community.

Pathway 1.4A
Community 1.4 to 1.1

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will return the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to the Reference Community (1.1).

Pathway 1.4B
Community 1.4 to 1.2

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will return the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2).

Pathway 1.4C
Community 1.4 to 1.3

Reintroduction of grazing with heavy continuous use will return the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to the At-Risk Community (1.3).

State 2
Eroded State

This threshold to the Eroded State (2) is crossed as a result of heavy disturbance and multi-year drought which cause large bare areas to develop. The resulting wind erosion produces large areas of blowing sand. The Eroded State includes the Active Blowout Community (2.1) and the Early Seral Community (2.2). If the Eroded State transitioned from the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) or the Sodbusted State (5), the land cannot return to the Reference State (1) from the Eroded State as the native plant community has been too severely impacted for the restoration to occur.

Dominant plant species

blowout grass (Redfieldia flexuosa), grass
sandhill muhly (Muhlenbergia pungens), grass
common sunflower (Helianthus annuus), other herbaceous
lemon scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum), other herbaceous

Community 2.1
Active Blowout Community

The Active Blowout or Blowout Grass-Sandhill Muhly (Redfieldia flexuosa-Muhlenbergia pungens) Community (2.1) develops in the presence of heavy disturbance and multi-year drought causing large unvegetated areas. Blowing sand damages adjacent vegetation and reduces cover causing additional soil movement and enlargement of the blowout. This condition can be reached from any other herbaceous plant community. Evaporation is extremely high. Transpiration of the few existing plants is also high due to bare ground, lack of litter, and low plant density. Due to their drought tolerance, sandhill muhly and blowout grass are present in areas of the blowout where soil movement is minimal.

Dominant plant species

blowout grass (Redfieldia flexuosa), grass
sandhill muhly (Muhlenbergia pungens), grass

Figure 23. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6638, Eroded Tableland, warm-season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	15	20	30	15	5	5	0	0

Community 2.2
Early Seral Community

The Early Seral or Blowout Grass-Sandhill Muhly/Lemon Scurfpea (Redfieldia flexuosa-Muhlenbergia pungens/Psoralidium lanceolatum) Community (2.2) develops as the disturbances that created the Active Blowout Community (2.1) are removed. Sandhill muhly, and blowout grass, along with lemon scurfpea, and prairie sunflower are early colonizers. As succession progresses, sandhill muhly and blowout grass patches expand, and sand bluestem begins to colonize the site. Prairie sandreed, hairy grama, and rose will slowly expand into the plant community from areas outside the blowout.

Dominant plant species

blowout grass (Redfieldia flexuosa), grass
sandhill muhly (Muhlenbergia pungens), grass
lemon scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum), other herbaceous
prairie sunflower (Helianthus petiolaris), other herbaceous

Figure 24. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 9. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	75	310	975
Forb	70	165	275
Shrub/Vine	5	15	30
Tree	0	10	20
Total	150	500	1300

Figure 25. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6634, Eroded Tableland, cool-season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	15	28	30	10	2	5	5	0	0

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Elimination of the disturbance followed by prescribed grazing that incorporates concentrated, short-term animal impact, will move the Blowout Community (2.1) to the Early Seral Community (2.2).

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Any negative disturbance, such as heavy grazing, rotational grazing with inadequate recovery periods, wildfire, or drought can return the Early Seral Community (2.2) to the Active Blowout Community (2.1),

State 3
Native/Invaded Grass State

Figure 26. Sands 18-22 PZ Ecological Site, Native/Invaded Grass State, Brown County, Nebraska.

The Native/Invaded Grass State (3) has been degraded from the Reference State (1) and much of the native warm-season mid- and tallgrass community has been replaced by warm-season shortgrasses and non-native cool-season grass. The loss of warm-season mid- and tallgrasses has negatively impacted energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration is reduced due to the shallow root system and rapid runoff characteristics of the shortgrass sod plant community. The Native/Invaded Grass State includes the Shortgrass Sod-Invasive Grass Community (3.1).

Dominant plant species

blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Community 3.1
Shortgrass Sod-Invasive Grass Community

The Shortgrass Sod-Invasive Grass or Blue Grama/Kentucky Bluegrass (Bouteloua gracilis-Poa Pratensis) Community develops under long-term (more than fifteen years) heavy grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. This community can also develop with continuous, summer long grazing or with rotational grazing that does not allow adequate recovery time before pastures are re-entered. This plant community will also occur in large pastures with poor grazing distribution which leads to animals repeatedly grazing individual plants. This plant community consists of warm-season, sod-forming shortgrasses, cool-season grasses, and grass-likes. Typically, the dominant grass is blue grama. Other grasses or grass-likes include hairy grama, sedges, sand dropseed, prairie sandreed, needle and thread, and Kentucky bluegrass. The dominant forbs include Cuman ragweed and annual sunflower. The dominant shrubs include rose and cactus. Compared to the Reference Community (1.1), blue grama, hairy grama, sedges, ragweed, and rose have increased, while prairie sandreed, sand bluestem, and switchgrass have decreased. Non-native, cool-season grasses have become a significant part of the plant community. Under some management strategies, the plant community will become dominated by Kentucky bluegrass or other non-native grasses such as cheatgrass and smooth brome. The plant diversity has decreased from that of the Reference Community. This plant community is resistant to change due to a lower percentage of bare ground and the density of the shortgrass sod. Under disturbance, this plant community is also highly resilient. The soil erosion is low. The hydrologic function is impaired because of the high density of short-rooted grasses which decreases infiltration.

Dominant plant species

blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Figure 27. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 10. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	385	626	765
Forb	10	42	75
Shrub/Vine	5	28	50
Tree	0	4	10
Total	400	700	900

Figure 28. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6638, Eroded Tableland, warm-season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	15	20	30	15	5	5	0	0

State 4
Invaded Woody State

Figure 29. Sands 18-22 PZ Ecological Site, Invaded Woody State, Brown County, Nebraska.

The Invaded Woody State (4) is the result of woody encroachment. Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet, the threshold to the Invaded Woody State has been crossed. Woody species are increasing due to the lack of prescribed fire, brush management, or other woody tree removal. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, reduced diversity of functional and structural groups, reduced forage production, and reduced soil quality. Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State toward a grass dominated state. If the Invaded Woody State transitioned from the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) or the Sodbusted State (5), the land cannot return to the Reference State (1) as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function had been too severely impacted prior to the woody encroachment to allow the return to the Reference State through woody species removal. The Invaded Woody State includes one community, the Invaded Woody Community (4.1).

Dominant plant species

eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass

Community 4.1
Invaded Woody Community

The Invaded Woody Community (4.1) has at least 15 percent canopy cover consisting of trees generally 5 feet or taller. Encroaching trees are primarily eastern redcedar. Additional woody cover from deciduous trees and shrubs may be present. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern redcedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern redcedar can eventually dominate the site resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production and which has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat. With long-term fire suppression, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will typically be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of coniferous species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a coniferous overstory. Eastern redcedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.loesscanyonsburning group.com). Resprouting brush must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required. This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase in relation the plant community from which this plant community originated. The hydrologic function is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is typically increased because of a lack of herbaceous cover and the rooting structure provided by the herbaceous species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.

Dominant plant species

eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass

State 5
Sodbusted State

The threshold to the Sodbusted State (5) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. If farming operations are suspended, the site can seeded to native grasses and forms resulting in the Reseeded Native Grass Community (5.1), be seeded to a tame pasture forage mixture resulting in the Seeded Pasture Community (5.2), or be abandoned with no seeding which will result in the Natural Reclamation Community (5.3). Permanent alterations of the soil, plant community, and hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Community 5.1
Reseeded Native Grass Community

The Reseeded Native Grass Community (5.1) does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, fertility management, and past grazing management. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will be required to maintain productivity and desirable species. Native range and grasslands seeded to native species are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, and grass species seeded. Prescribed grazing including appropriate utilization levels, adequate growing-season recovery periods, and timing of grazing that favor the productivity, health, and vigor of the seeded species is required to maintain this community. Periodic prescribed burning and brush management may also be needed.

Community 5.2
Seeded Pasture Community

The Seeded Pasture Community (5.2) does not contain native remnants and varies considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment. There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the level of management and species seeded. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production. Fertilization, weed management, and prescribed grazing including appropriate utilization levels, adequate growing-season recovery periods, and timing of grazing that favor the productivity, health, and vigor of the seeded species are required to maintain this community. Periodic prescribed burning and brush management may also be needed.

Community 5.3
Natural Reclamation Community

The Natural Reclamation Community (3.3) consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plowpan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a resource concern. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Multiple heavy disturbances such as heavy grazing with wildfire, multi-year drought, or other disturbance will cause the Reference State (1) to transition to the Eroded State (2). These disturbances create large areas of bare ground resulting in wind erosion with areas of blowing sand called blowouts. Concentration of livestock near fence corners, mineral feeders, and water tanks or trailing can be factors in development of a blowout.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Reference State

Native/Invaded Grass State

Heavy grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods will cause the Reference State (1) to lose a significant proportion of warm-season, tall- and midgrass species and cross a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State (3). Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root-matting presence of sod-forming grasses. When warm-season, tall- and midgrasses are reduced to remnant or trace amounts, biotic integrity may degraded to the point that restoration to the Reference State is not feasible.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

Reference State

Invaded Woody State

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species will cause the Reference State (1) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (4) if woody species control measures are not implemented.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 5

The Reference State (1) has been significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. When the land is no longer cropped, the resulting state is the Sodbusted State (5).

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Removal of the disturbance accompanied by prescribed grazing which includes short periods of concentrated short-term animal impact (such as feeding hay on the blowout) and adequate, growing season recovery periods will return the Eroded State (2) to the Reference State (1). This restoration is a long-term process and it will typically take more than ten years to achieve. Land that entered the Eroded State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) or the Sodbusted State (5) cannot return to the Reference State from the Eroded State as the plant community has been too significantly altered for this restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R2B
State 2 to 3

Removal of the disturbance accompanied by prescribed grazing which includes short periods of concentrated short-term animal impact (such as feeding hay on the blowout) and adequate, growing season recovery periods will return the Eroded State (2) to the Native/Invaded Grass State (3). This restoration is a long-term process and it will typically take more than ten years. Land that entered the Eroded State from the Native/Invaded Grass State or the Sodbusted State (5) cannot return to the Reference State (1) from the Eroded State as the plant community has been too significantly altered for this restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R2C
State 2 to 5

Removal of the disturbance accompanied by prescribed grazing which includes short periods of concentrated short-term animal impact (such as feeding hay on the blowout) and adequate, growing season recovery periods will return the Eroded State (2) to the Sodbusted State (5). This restoration is a long-term process and will typically take more than ten years to achieve. Land that entered the Eroded State from the Sodbusted State cannot return to the Reference State (1) from the Eroded State as the plant community has been too significantly altered for this restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

Native/Invaded Grass State

Reference State

The Native/Invaded Grass State (3) can return to the Reference State (1) with long-term prescribed grazing which includes adequate growing season recovery periods. This process will take a significant amount of time (more than 15 years) and may only occur if adequate numbers of native, warm-season, tall- and midgrasses and native, cool-season grasses are present in the current plant community. When these plants are no longer contained in the plant community, this restoration may not be feasible.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

Multiple heavy disturbances such as heavy grazing with wildfire, multi-year drought, or other disturbance will cause the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) to transition to the Eroded State (2). These disturbances create large areas of bare ground resulting in wind erosion with areas of blowing sand called blowouts. Concentration of livestock near fence corners, mineral feeders, and water tanks or trailing can be factors in development of a blowout.

Transition T3B
State 3 to 4

Native/Invaded Grass State

Invaded Woody State

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species in the absence of woody species management will cause the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T3C
State 3 to 5

The Native/Invaded Grass State (3) has been significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. When the land is no longer cropped, the resulting state is the Sodbusted State (5).

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

Invaded Woody State

Reference State

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Reference State (1). The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Reference State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) or the Sodbusted State (5), cannot be restored to the Reference State through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 3

Invaded Woody State

Native/Invaded Grass State

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Native/Invaded Grass State (3). Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Native/Invaded Grass State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State or the Sodbusted State (5) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 5

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Woody Invaded State (4) toward the Sodbusted State (5). Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Sodbusted State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Woody Invaded State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) or the Sodbusted State, cannot transition to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 2

The Sodbusted State (5) crosses the threshold to the Eroded State (2) with a series of heavy disturbances such as heavy grazing with wildfire, multi-year drought, or other disturbance. These disturbances create large areas of bare ground resulting in wind erosion with areas of blowing sand called blowouts. Concentration of livestock near fence corners, mineral feeders, and water tanks or trailing can be factors in development of a blowout.

Transition T5B
State 5 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Sodbusted State (5) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Additional community tables

Table 11. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			920–1380
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	460–920	–
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	345–805	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	115–230	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–115	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			345–575
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	345–575	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	0–115	–
	sand lovegrass	ERTR3	Eragrostis trichodes	23–115	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–46	–
3	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			230–460
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	115–345	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–115	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	23–115	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–46	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–46	–
	Indian ricegrass	ACHY	Achnatherum hymenoides	0–46	–
4	Warm-Season Shortgrass			115–230
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	115–230	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	115–230	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–46	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–46	–
5	Grass-like			23–115
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	23–115	–
Forb
6	Forb			115–230
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–46	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–46	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–46	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	0–46	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	23–46	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	23–46	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–23	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–23	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–23	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–23	–
	spiderwort	TRADE	Tradescantia	0–23	–
	scaly blazing star	LISQ	Liatris squarrosa	0–23	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–23	–
	spiny phlox	PHHO	Phlox hoodii	0–23	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–23	–
Shrub/Vine
7	Shrub			23–115
	western sandcherry	PRPUB	Prunus pumila var. besseyi	23–69	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–69	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	23–46	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	23–46	–
	soapweed yucca	YUGL	Yucca glauca	0–23	–
	brittle pricklypear	OPFR	Opuntia fragilis	0–23	–

Table 12. Community 1.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			400–1000
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	200–600	–
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	200–400	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	100–200	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–100	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			200–600
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	200–500	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	100–200	–
	purple lovegrass	ERSP	Eragrostis spectabilis	0–100	–
	sandhill muhly	MUPU2	Muhlenbergia pungens	0–100	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–40	–
3	Cool-Season Bunchgrasses			100–200
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–200	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–100	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–100	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–20	–
4	Warm-Season Shortgrass			100–300
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	100–200	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	100–200	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–40	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–40	–
5	Grass-Like			20–100
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	20–100	–
Forb
6	Forb			100–300
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	20–100	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	20–80	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	20–80	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	20–60	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–40	–
	fourpoint evening primrose	OERH	Oenothera rhombipetala	0–40	–
	scaly blazing star	LISQ	Liatris squarrosa	0–20	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–20	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–20	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–20	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–20	–
	spiderwort	TRADE	Tradescantia	0–20	–
	spiny phlox	PHHO	Phlox hoodii	0–20	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	0–20	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–20	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–20	–
Shrub/Vine
7	Shrub			100–200
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	40–100	–
	soapweed yucca	YUGL	Yucca glauca	0–60	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	20–60	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–60	–
	western sandcherry	PRPUB	Prunus pumila var. besseyi	0–40	–
	brittle pricklypear	OPFR	Opuntia fragilis	0–20	–
Tree
8	Tree			0–60
	eastern redcedar	JUVI	Juniperus virginiana	0–60	–

Table 13. Community 1.3 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			225–375
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	225–375	–
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	0–75	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			75–225
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	75–150	–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–75	–
3	Cool-Season Bunchgrasses			75–150
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	75–150	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–75	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–30	–
4	Warm-Season Shortgrass			75–225
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	75–225	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	75–150	–
	purple lovegrass	ERSP	Eragrostis spectabilis	0–45	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–45	–
5	Grass-Like			75–150
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	75–150	–
6	Non-Native Cool-Season Grass			75–150
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	75–150	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–75	–
7	Forb			150–375
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	150–300	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	15–75	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–75	–
	fourpoint evening primrose	OERH	Oenothera rhombipetala	0–75	–
	lemon scurfpea	PSLA3	Psoralidium lanceolatum	15–75	–
	spiderwort	TRADE	Tradescantia	0–75	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	15–75	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	15–75	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	15–45	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	15–45	–
	scaly blazing star	LISQ	Liatris squarrosa	15–45	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–30	–
	Rocky Mountain beeplant	CLSE	Cleome serrulata	0–30	–
	common sunflower	HEAN3	Helianthus annuus	0–30	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–15	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–15	–
Forb
8	Shrub			75–150
	soapweed yucca	YUGL	Yucca glauca	15–175	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	30–150	–
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	30–150	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	30–150	–
	brittle pricklypear	OPFR	Opuntia fragilis	15–45	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–15	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Tree			0–45
	eastern redcedar	JUVI	Juniperus virginiana	0–45	–

Table 14. Community 1.4 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			630–1050
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	315–735	–
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	210–630	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	105–210	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–63	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			315–525
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	210–420	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	150–210	–
	purple lovegrass	ERSP	Eragrostis spectabilis	0–63	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–63	–
3	Cool-Season Bunchgrasses			210–525
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	105–420	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	105–315	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–63	–
4	Warm-Season Shortgrass			105–210
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–105	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–105	–
	mat sandbur	CELO3	Cenchrus longispinus	0–63	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–63	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–63	–
5	Grass-like			21–42
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	21–42	–
6	Non-native Cool-Season Grass			21–210
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	21–210	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	21–210	–
Forb
7	Forb			105–210
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–105	–
	common sunflower	HEAN3	Helianthus annuus	0–63	–
	lemon scurfpea	PSLA3	Psoralidium lanceolatum	0–63	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–63	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	0–63	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–42	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–42	–
	scaly blazing star	LISQ	Liatris squarrosa	0–42	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–42	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–21	–
	spiny phlox	PHHO	Phlox hoodii	0–21	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–21	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–21	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–21	–
	Rocky Mountain beeplant	CLSE	Cleome serrulata	0–21	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–21	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			42–210
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–63	–
	western sandcherry	PRPUB	Prunus pumila var. besseyi	0–63	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–63	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–63	–
	soapweed yucca	YUGL	Yucca glauca	0–21	–
	brittle pricklypear	OPFR	Opuntia fragilis	0–21	–

Table 15. Community 2.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			50–100
	blowout grass	REFL	Redfieldia flexuosa	25–50	–
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	25–50	–
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	0–25	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			25–75
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	25–75	–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–25	–
3	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			5–25
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	5–25	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–10	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–10	–
4	Warm-Season Shortgrass			30–100
	sandhill muhly	MUPU2	Muhlenbergia pungens	10–50	–
	mat sandbur	CELO3	Cenchrus longispinus	10–25	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–25	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–25	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–10	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–10	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–10	–
5	Grass-like			5–25
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	5–25	–
Forb
6	Forb			75–250
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	75–175	–
	common sunflower	HEAN3	Helianthus annuus	25–100	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	25–50	–
	Rocky Mountain beeplant	CLSE	Cleome serrulata	5–25	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–25	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–10	–

Table 16. Community 3.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			0–35
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	0–21	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–21	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			35–105
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	35–105	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–15	–
3	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			0–35
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–21	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–7	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0	–
4	Warm-Season Shortgrass			105–280
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	105–245	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	14–56	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	7–35	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–14	–
5	Grass-like			35–70
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	35–70	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–14	–
6	Non-Native Grass			0–35
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	0–35	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–14	–
Forb
7	Forb			14–70
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	0–35	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–35	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–35	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–21	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–14	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–14	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–14	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–7	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–7	–
	scaly blazing star	LISQ	Liatris squarrosa	0–7	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–7	–
	spiny phlox	PHHO	Phlox hoodii	0–7	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			7–49
	brittle pricklypear	OPFR	Opuntia fragilis	7–35	–
	twistspine pricklypear	OPMA2	Opuntia macrorhiza	0–35	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–21	–
	soapweed yucca	YUGL	Yucca glauca	0–14	–
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	0–14	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–7	–
Tree
9	Tree			0–14
	eastern redcedar	JUVI	Juniperus virginiana	0–14	–

Interpretations

Animal community

LIVESTOCK - GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide year-long forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage may be lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep)requirements. The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season-long grazing under normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Production and Carrying Capacity*
Community 1.1, Reference Community: 2,300 lbs/acre, 0.63 AUM/acre
Community 1.2, Degraded Native Grass Community: 2,000 lbs/ac, 0.55 AUM/acre
Community 1.3, At-Risk Community: 1,500 lbs/acre, 0.41 AUM/acre
Community 1.4, Excessive Litter Community: 1,800 lbs/acre, 0.49 AUM/acre**
Community 2.2, Early Seral Community: 500 lbs/acre, 0.14 AUM/acre
Community 3.1, Shortgrass Sod-Invasive Grass Community: 700 lbs/acre, 0.19 AUM/acre

*Based upon the following conditions: continuous season-long grazing by cattle under average growing conditions, 25 percent harvest efficiency. Air dry forage requirements based on 3 percent of animal body weight, or 912 lbs/AU/month.
**Production in the Excessive Litter Community is extremely variable with the amount of production dependent upon the length of time that herbivory and fire have been excluded.

WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 66 lies primarily within the Mixed-grass prairie ecosystem. Though European settlers have converted about a quarter of this landscape to farmland, the majority of the prairie is still intact. This area still consists of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional wetlands and limited woody riparian corridors. These habitats historically provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects still provide a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrive in this landscape.

The Mixed-grass prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement, elimination of fire, overgrazing, and some habitat fragmentation significantly altered the appearance and functionality of the entire ecosystem. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free-roaming bison herds have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats that they provide. Fragmentation has reduced habitat quality for numerous area-sensitive species, as highlighted by the decline of the greater prairie chicken.

Historically, an ecological mosaic of the sites provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands. Most of these important habitat features and components are intact, providing upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds; nesting and escape cover for waterfowl; forbs and insects for brood-rearing habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores.

Disruption of the natural fire regime and lack of appropriate grazing management are the greatest threats to the ecosystem dynamics today. Tree and shrub encroachment from lack of fire creates habitat that favors generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove, and provides perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality on native bird populations. Introduced species such as smooth bromegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), and Canada thistle further degrade the biological integrity of many areas of the prairie.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. Normal rainfall is 18-22 inches per year. The soils on this site are in Hydrologic Soil Group A (low runoff and high infiltration even when thoroughly wetted). Water transmission through Group A soils is normally greater than 0.30 inches per hour. Runoff is expected to occur only during the most intense storms (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

For the interpretive plant community, rills and gullies should not typically be present. Water flow patterns should be barely distinguishable if at all present. Pedestals are only slightly present in association with bunchgrasses such as little bluestem. Litter typically falls in place, and signs of movement are not common. Chemical and physical crusts are rare to non-existent. Cryptogamic crusts are present but only cover 1-2 percent of the soil surface. Overall, this site has the appearance of being very stable and productive.

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting opportunities for upland game species. The wide variety of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products on this site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Other information

Field Offices (Counties)
Nebraska:
Ainsworth, (Brown, Keya Paha, and Rock)
Bloomfield, (Knox,)
Spencer, (Boyd)
Neligh, (Antelope)
O'Neill, (Holt)
Valentine, (Cherry)

South Dakota:
Burke, (Gregory)
Martin, (Bennett and Shannon)
Winner, (Tripp)
White River, (Mellette and Todd)

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel also were used. Those involved in developing this site include Wayne Bachman, Soil Scientist, NRCS; Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Anna Ferguson, Soil Conservationist, NRCS; Roger Hammer, Soil Scientist, NRCS; Dana Larsen, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Dave Schmidt, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS; Kim Stine, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS.

Other references

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska.(http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/)
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/national-range-and-pasture-handbook)
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Water and Climate Center. (http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/climate).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2021b. National Soil Information System. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/resources/education-and-teaching-materials/national-soil-information-system-nasis).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2021c. National soil survey handbook, title 430-VI. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/handbook/).
Soil Survey Staff. 2021. Web soil survey. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/)
USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA USA.
USDA, NRCS, various published Soil Surveys

Contributors

Dana Larsen
Doug Whisenhunt
Nadine Bishop

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 11/18/2024

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to the members of the soils, local practitioners and technical teams, as well as the editor.

This Ecological Site was approved for publication in March of 2021.

Non-discrimination statement
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To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, found online at How to File a Program Discrimination Complaint and at any USDA office or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632-9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2) fax: (202) 690-7442; or (3) email:
program.intake@usda.gov.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	Original Author: Stan Boltz Version V participants: Emily Helms, Nadine Bishop, Jeff Nichols
Contact for lead author	jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov
Date	11/18/2024
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site.
Presence of water flow patterns:
Typically, none. Water flow patterns are not expected on gentle slopes. On steeper slopes (greater than 15 percent) water flow patterns may occur but will be barely visible and discontinuous.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Typically, none. Bunchgrasses may be slightly pedestalled (0.5 inch/1.25 cm) with no exposed roots on steeper slopes (greater than 15 percent), becoming more common as slopes become steeper. Drought or wildfire can contribute to increased incidences of pedestalled plants.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is typically less than 15 percent. Bare ground patches are not connected and are less than 6 inches (15 cm) across, unless associated with disturbance such as burrowing animals. Multi-year drought and/or wildfire can increase bare ground to 25 percent for up to two years following the disturbance.

Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae).
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
Typically, none. Occasional areas associated with concentrated animal activity (livestock trailing and burrowing animals) may exhibit wind scoured areas with accompanying deposition. These areas are typically less than 10 feet (3 meters) across and comprise less than 1 percent of the site.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Typically, none. Litter should fall in place. Slight amount of movement of fine litter (less than 12 inches / 30 cm) from water is possible, but not normal. Litter movement from wind is not expected.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
This site has low organic matter in the surface horizon and the structure is single grain sand. Soil stability will be difficult to measure on these soils. Soil stability ratings of less than 2 are expected. Surface erosion by water rarely occurs due to rapid infiltration, but the surface is susceptible to wind erosion when vegetative cover is reduced due to multi-year drought, wildfire, or multi-year heavy grazing. Biological crusts may be present (up to 10 percent of the surface) and serve to provide resistance to erosion.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
The surface layer is 7 inches (18 cm) thick or less. Soil is dark grayish brown to brown (values of 4 to 6) when dry and dark grayish brown to very dark grayish brown, dark grayish brown, dark brown, or grayish brown (values of 3 to 5) when moist. Structure is typically weak fine granular or single grain.

The primary soil series correlated to this site include Dunday, Inavale, and Valentine.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
The functional/structural groups provide a combination of rooting depths and structure which positively influences infiltration. Combination of shallow and deep rooted species (mid & tall rhizomatous and tufted perennial cool season grasses) with fine and coarse roots positively influences infiltration. Invasion of introduced cool-season grasses such as annual bromes, Kentucky bluegrass, and smooth brome may have an adverse impact on infiltration and runoff. Woody encroachment may also negatively influence infiltration.

The expected composition of the plant community is 80 to 90 percent perennial grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 1 to 5 percent shrubs. The perennial grass and grass-like component is made up of C4, tallgrasses (40-60%); C4, midgrasses (15-25%); C3, bunchgrasses (10-20%); C4, shortgrasses (5-10%); and grass-likes (1-5%).
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. A compaction layer should not be present.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, C4, tallgrass, 920-1380 #/ac, 40-60% (3 species minimum): Indiangrass, prairie sandreed, sand bluestem, switchgrass.
2. Native, perennial, C4, midgrass, 345-575 #/ac, 15-25% (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sand lovegrass, sand dropseed.

Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, C4, tallgrass, 400-1000 #/ac, 20-50% (3 species minimum): Indiangrass, prairie sandreed, sand bluestem, switchgrass.
2. Native, perennial, C4, midgrass, 200-600 #/ac, 10-30% (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sand lovegrass, sand dropseed.

Phase 1.3
1. Native, perennial, C4, tallgrass, 225-375 #/ac, 15-25% (1 species minimum): Indiangrass, prairie sandreed, sand bluestem, switchgrass.

2. Native forb, 150-375 #/ac, 10-25% (6 species minimum): dotted blazing star, scaly blazing star, field sagewort, white heath aster, lemon scurfpea, Cuman ragweed, and other forbs which vary from location to location.

Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, C3, bunchgrass, 230-460 #/ac, 10-20% (2 species minimum): Indian ricegrass, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, prairie Junegrass, Scribner’s rosettegrass.

Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, C4, shortgrass, 100-300 #/ac, 5-15% (2 species minimum): blue grama, hairy grama, thin paspalum.
2. Native forb, 100-300 #/ac, 5-15% (4 species minimum): Cuman ragweed, tarragon, Missouri goldenrod, white heath aster, and other forbs which vary from location to location.

Phase 1.3
1. Native, perennial, C4, midgrass, 75-225 #/ac, 5-15% (1 species minimum): little bluestem, sand dropseed.
2. Native, perennial, C4, shortgrass, 75-225 #/ac, 5-15% (2 species minimum): blue grama, hairy grama, thin paspalum, purple lovegrass.

Other:
Minor - Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, C4, shortgrass, 115-230 #/ac, 5-10%: blue grama, hairy grama, thin paspalum.
2. Native forb, 115-230 #/ac, 5-10%: forbs present vary from location to location.
3. Grass-like, 23-115 #/ac, 1-5%: sedges.
4. Shrub, 23-115 #/ac, Leadplant, western sandcherry, rose, brittle pricklypear, soapweed yucca, and other shrubs which vary from location to location.

Minor - Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, C3, bunchgrass, 100-200 #/ac, 5-10%: needle and thread, prairie Junegrass, Scribner’s rosettegrass.
2. Shrub, 100-200 #/ac, 5-10%: leadplant, rose, and other shrubs which vary from location to location.
3. Grass-like, 20-100 #/ac, 1-5%: sedges.
4. Tree, 0-60 #/ac, 0-3%: eastern redcedar.

Minor - Phase 1.3
1. Native, perennial, C3, bunchgrass, 75-150 #/ac, 5-10%: needle and thread, prairie Junegrass, Scribner’s rosettegrass.
2. Grass-like, 75-150 #/ac, 5-10%: sedges.
3. Non-native, cool-season grass, 75-150 #/ac, 5-10%: cheatgrass, Kentucky bluegrass.
4. Shrub, 100-200 #/ac, 5-10%: brittle brickly pear, western snowberry, soapweed yucca, brittle pricklypear and other shrubs which vary from location to location.
5. Tree, 0-45 #/ac, 0-3%: eastern redcedar.

Additional:
The Reference Community (1.1) consists of seven F/S groups. These groups are, in order of relative abundance, native, perennial, C4 tallgrass; native, perennial, C4 midgrass; native, perennial, C3 bunchgrass; native, perennial, C4 shortgrass = native forb; grass-like = shrub.

The Degraded Native Community (1.2) includes eight F/S groups. These groups are, in order of relative abundance, native, perennial, C4, tallgrass; native, perennial, C4, midgrass; native, perennial, C4 shortgrass = native forb; native, perennial, C3, bunchgrass = shrub; grass-like; tree.

The At Risk Community (1.3) included nine F/S groups which are native, perennial, C4 tallgrass; forbs: native, perennial, C4 midgrass = native, perennial, C4, shortgrass; native, perennial, C3 bunchgrass = grass-likes = non-native, C3 grass = shrub; and tree.
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Bunch grasses have strong, healthy centers with few (less than 3 percent) dead centers. Shrubs may show some dead branches (less than 5 percent) as plants age.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter cover is evenly distributed throughout the site and is expected to be 50 to 70 percent and at a depth of 0.25-0.50 inch (0.65-1.3 cm). Litter cover during and following drought can range from 40 to 50 percent.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
The representative value (RV) for annual production is 2,300 pounds per acre on an air dry weight basis. Low and High production years should yield 1,800 and 3,000 pounds per acre respectively.
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
No non-native invasive species are present. Annual bromes (cheatgrass and Japanese/field), absinth wormwood, sulphur cinquefoil, eastern red cedar, common mullein, and Kentucky bluegrass are known invasives that have the potential to become dominant or co-dominant on this site.

Consult the state noxious weed and state watch lists for potential invasive species. Note: species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants.
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to recent weather conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.

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Ecosystem states

3. Native/Invaded Grass State

4. Invaded Woody State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)