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Conservation Service

Ecological site R071XY054NE

Sandy

Last updated: 1/08/2025
Accessed: 04/08/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

Basemap provided by ESRI. Sources: Esri, HERE, DeLorme, Intermap, increment P Corp., GEBCO, USGS, FAO, NPS, NRCAN, GeoBase, IGN, Kadaster NL, Ordnance Survey, Esri Japan, METI, Esri China (Hong Kong), swisstopo, MapmyIndia, © OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS User Community.

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Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 071X–Central Nebraska Loess Hills

MLRA 71 is named “The Central Nebraska Loess Hills” and is located exclusively in Nebraska. The approximately 5.3 million acre landscape covers all or parts of 21 counties, primarily Custer, Dawson, Buffalo, Sherman, Howard, Valley, Greeley, and Hall. The physical appearance of the landscape is dominated by loess hills dissected by the North, Middle, and South Loup Rivers and their tributaries. The Platte River defines the southern border. The elevation in MLRA 71 ranges from over 3,000 to less than 1,700 feet above sea level, with average local relief stretching from 20 to 200 feet. Average annual precipitation ranges from 21 to 26 inches, with the number of freeze-free days averaging around 200.

Loess overlays the surface of almost all of the uplands in this MLRA. Alluvial clay, silt, sand, and gravel are deposited in the stream and river valleys and can be extensive in the major drainages. Terraces are common in the valleys along the river systems. The predominate soil orders are mesic, udic Mollisols and Entisols, commonly represented by the Coly, Uly, Cozad, Hord, Hall, and Holdrege soil series.

The matrix vegetation type is mixed-grass prairie, with big and little bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, and sideoats and blue grama making up the bulk of the warm-season species, while western wheatgrass is the dominant cool-season species. The primary large-patch vegetative component of the landscape is dominated by needle and thread, prairie sandreed, sand and little bluestem, and blue grama. The majority of the small-patch communities are associated with upland playas and the wetter sites found along the floodplains.

Forty four percent of the land in this MLRA has been broken out of native prairie and farmed; mostly corn, alfalfa, and some soybeans, while 48 percent of the grasslands remain intact. Livestock grazing, primarily cattle, is a major industry here. Wildlife flourishes in this combination of crop and grassland environment, with both mule and white-tailed deer being the most abundant wild ungulate. A variety of smaller species, including coyote, raccoon, opossum, porcupines, muskrat, beaver, squirrel, and mink thrive in the region, as well as a suite of grassland and upland birds. The rivers, streams, and lakes harbor excellent fisheries.

This landscape developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, and repeated natural or man-caused wildfire. Other biotic and abiotic factors also typically influence soil and site development. This is a disturbance driven ecosystem, evolving under the influences of herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Historically, these processes created a heterogenous mosaic of plant communities and structure heights across the region. Any given site in this landscape experienced fire every 7 to 9 years. The fires were caused both by lightning strikes, and were set by native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. These people understood the value of fire as a tool, and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided both excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing game animals such as bison and elk.

Fragmentation of the native grasslands by conversion to cropland, transportation corridors, and other development by European man has effectively disrupted the natural fire regime of this ecosystem. This has allowed encroachment by native and introduced shrubs and trees into the remnants of the native prairie throughout the MLRA. Aggressive fire suppression policies have exacerbated this process to the point that shrub and tree encroachment is a major ecological issue in the majority of both native and re-seeded grasslands.

Even as post European settlement's alteration of the fire regime allows the expansion of the woody component of the native prairie, introduction of eastern redcedar as a windbreak component further facilitates invasion by this species. While eastern redcedar is native to Nebraska, the historic population in MLRA 71 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainages that were subsequently insulated from fire, or non-existent. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern redcedar as a primary component has established a seed source for the aggressive woody plant. The ensuing encroachment into the native grasslands degrades the native wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock. However, since it is not a root-sprouter, eastern redcedar is very susceptible to fire when under six feet tall. Management with prescribed fire is exceedingly effective if applied before this stage. Larger eastern redcedars can also be controlled with fire but requires the use of specially designed ignition and suppression techniques.

Classification relationships

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 71 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2006)

Ecoregions of Nebraska, Nebraska Natural Legacy Project: Mixed-grass Ecoregion

Ecological site concept

This site can occupy a dune or interdune position. The soil texture is sandy loam or finer and the dark colored surface layer is greater than 10 inches thick. When occupying dune positions, the slope is from 3 to 15 percent, and catsteps are not evident. Sandy sites that are interdune features have less than 3 percent slope.

Associated sites

R071XY024NE	Subirrigated The Subirrigated ecological site is often adjacent to, but lower on the landscape than the Sandy site.
R071XY055NE	Sands The Sands ecological site is often adjacent to but higher on the landscape than the Sandy site.

R071XY024NE

Subirrigated

The Subirrigated ecological site is often adjacent to, but lower on the landscape than the Sandy site.

R071XY055NE

Sands

The Sands ecological site is often adjacent to but higher on the landscape than the Sandy site.

Similar sites

R071XY055NE	Sands The Sands ecological site usually occupies a higher landscape position, has steeper slopes, a thinner soil surface layer, and lower vegetative production than the Sandy site.
R071XY037NE	Limy Upland The Limy Upland ecological site can be differentiated by a soil texture that is other than loamy fine sand, sandy loam, loamy sand, or sand and presence of carbonates at or near the soil surface which causes the soil to be effervescent.
R071XY036NE	Loamy Upland The Loamy Upland ecological site has soils with silt loam, loam, or silty clay loam surface textures while soils on Sandy sites have textures of loamy fine sand, sandy loam, loamy sand, or sand.

R071XY055NE

Sands

The Sands ecological site usually occupies a higher landscape position, has steeper slopes, a thinner soil surface layer, and lower vegetative production than the Sandy site.

R071XY037NE

Limy Upland

The Limy Upland ecological site can be differentiated by a soil texture that is other than loamy fine sand, sandy loam, loamy sand, or sand and presence of carbonates at or near the soil surface which causes the soil to be effervescent.

R071XY036NE

Loamy Upland

The Loamy Upland ecological site has soils with silt loam, loam, or silty clay loam surface textures while soils on Sandy sites have textures of loamy fine sand, sandy loam, loamy sand, or sand.

Figure 2. Block diagram

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	(1) Andropogon hallii (2) Calamovilfa longifolia

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Physiographic features

The Sandy site occurs on uplands with slopes ranging from nearly level to steep. Surface slip slopes known as “catsteps” are not characteristic of this site, and it produces runoff to areas lower on the landscape. In the absence of adequate vegetative cover, it is subject to both water and wind erosion. Livestock trailing or other disturbances can lead to the formation of blowouts.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Dune (2) Stream terrace (3) Hillslope (4) Interdune
Runoff class	Negligible to low
Flooding duration	Brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	None to rare
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	497 – 937 m
Slope	0 – 15%
Water table depth	203 cm
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

Annual precipitation ranges from 22 to 26 inches per year. Winds are estimated to average about 14 miles per hour annually. Occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 60 miles per hour. Growth of native cool-season plants begins in early April and continues to about mid-June. Native warm-season plants begin growth in early June and continue to early August. Green up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (average)	137 days
Freeze-free period (average)	156 days
Precipitation total (average)	660 mm

Bar

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Figure 3. Monthly precipitation range

Bar

Line

Figure 4. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 5. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 6. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) ANSELMO 2 SE [USC00250245], Anselmo, NE
(2) BROKEN BOW 2 W [USC00251200], Broken Bow, NE
(3) STAPLETON 5W [USC00258133], Stapleton, NE
(4) BURWELL [USC00251345], Burwell, NE
(5) CANADAY STEAM PLT [USC00251450], Lexington, NE
(6) COMSTOCK [USC00251835], Comstock, NE
(7) LOUP CITY [USC00254985], Loup City, NE
(8) MASON CITY [USC00255250], Mason City, NE
(9) OVERTON 3 W [USC00256439], Overton, NE
(10) GRAND ISLAND AP [USW00014935], Grand Island, NE
(11) CENTRAL CITY [USC00251560], Central City, NE
(12) KEARNEY 4 NE [USC00254335], Kearney, NE
(13) NORTH LOUP [USC00256040], North Loup, NE
(14) RAVENNA [USC00257040], Ravenna, NE
(15) ARNOLD [USC00250355], Arnold, NE
(16) GOTHENBURG [USC00253365], Gothenburg, NE
(17) OCONTO [USC00256167], Oconto, NE
(18) SAINT PAUL [USC00257515], Saint Paul, NE
(19) TAYLOR [USC00258455], Taylor, NE

Soil features

The features common to all soils associated with the Sandy site are sandy loam to fine sand surface textures and slopes of 0 to 15 percent. They range from moderately well drained to excessively drained and were formed in eolian sand or alluvium. The surface layer is 3 to 10 inches thick. The texture of the subsurface generally ranges from loam to fine sand.

Major soil series correlated to this ecological site include Thurman, Ortello, O’Neill, Anselmo, Blendon and Hersh. More information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more detail specific to your location.

Figure 7. Thurman series profile

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Eolian sands (2) Alluvium
Surface texture	(1) Fine sandy loam (2) Loamy fine sand (3) Sandy loam
Family particle size	(1) Sandy
Drainage class	Moderately well drained to excessively drained
Permeability class	Moderate to rapid
Soil depth	203 cm
Surface fragment cover <=3"	0%
Surface fragment cover >3"	0%
Available water capacity (0-101.6cm)	4.83 – 19.81 cm
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-101.6cm)	0 – 6%
Electrical conductivity (0-101.6cm)	0 – 2 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-101.6cm)	0
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-101.6cm)	5.1 – 8.4
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	0 – 24%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	0%

Ecological dynamics

Historically, large areas of blowing sand resulted in the active movement of the sand dunes. Evaporation from the soil surface was extremely high due to the large areas of bare ground, lack of litter, and sparse plant populations. The transpiration rate of these sparse plant populations was also high due to the harsh soil environment. Occasional wildfires, severe grazing by transient bison herds, and drought contributed to the lack of stability of the sand dunes. This lack of stability caused the dunes to go fluctuate through multiple stages of plant succession over the course of time. Early perennial plants such as sandhill muhly, blowout grass, and blowout penstemon were common due to their ability to tolerate the movement of the sand and dry conditions. As these plants began to colonize and stabilize the sand movement, other perennials such as prairie sandreed, sand bluestem, hairy grama, lemon scurfpea, and rose slowly became evident. Annuals like as sandbur, Texas croton, and annual sunflower eventually colonized the areas between the perennials.

As this site deteriorates, prairie sandreed, little bluestem, sand dropseed, and blue grama initially increase, while grazing sensitive species like sand and big bluestem, switchgrass, and Indiangrass decrease. Without a change in management, prairie sandreed and little bluestem soon begin to decrease, and the more grazing evasive species begin to become dominant. The site is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions, and the diversity in plant species allows for high drought resistance.

The reference plant community has been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, seasonal use pastures, appropriately timed and controlled grazing, and historical accounts.

The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted below, and includes a Reference State, a Native/Invaded Grass State, an Erosion State, Invaded Woody State and a Sodbusted State. Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to the alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The primary properties observed to determine this change are soil stability, vegetative communities, and the hydrologic cycle. Each state may have one or more plant communities that fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and climatic and local fluctuations in the precipitation regime. The processes that cause the movement between the states and communities are discussed in more detail in the state and community descriptions following the diagram.

State and transition model

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State describes the range of vegetative communities that occur on the Sandy site where the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes is mostly intact. The Reference Community is a representation of the native plant community that occupies a site that has been minimally altered by management and that was historically maintained by frequent fire and herbivory (grazing) with adequate recovery periods. The Degraded Native Grass, At-Risk Native Grass, and Excessive Litter Communities are the phases that result from management decisions that are unfavorable for a Reference Community. High perennial grass cover and production facilitates increased soil moisture retention, high infiltration rates, plant vigor, and overall soil quality.

Dominant plant species

leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
western sandcherry (Prunus pumila var. besseyi), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
Woods' rose (Rosa woodsii), shrub
sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
lemon scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum), other herbaceous
stiff sunflower (Helianthus pauciflorus), other herbaceous
scaly blazing star (Liatris squarrosa var. glabrata), other herbaceous
white heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), other herbaceous

Community 1.1
Reference Community

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference Community. This site evolved with grazing by large herbivores and is well suited for grazing by domestic livestock. This plant community can be found on areas that are well managed with grazing and prescribed burning. The Reference Community consists chiefly of warm-season tall- and midgrasses. The plant community is diverse, with about 85 percent grasses, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs by weight. Principle dominants are sand bluestem, prairie sandreed, and little bluestem. Grasses of secondary importance are Indiangrass, needlegrasses, switchgrass, sand lovegrass, hairy grama and blue grama. Sedges occur in the understory. Forbs and shrubs such as scaly and dotted blazing star, stiff sunflower, leadplant, rose, and sandcherry are significant. Runoff as evidenced by patterns of rill, gully, or other water flow is generally low due to the moderate to gentle slope gradient and high intake rate of these soils. Some pedestalling of plants occurs, but it is not very evident on casual observation and occurs on less than 5 percent of the plants. This plant community is extremely resilient and well adapted to the Central Great Plains climatic conditions. It is sustainable in terms of site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity. Plant litter is evenly distributed with some movement off-site, and natural plant mortality is low. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. Moderate or high available water capacity provides a favorable soil-water-plant relationship. Total annual production ranges from 2,200 to 3,200 pounds per acre of air-dried vegetation per acre with a representative value of 2,700 pounds per acre.

Dominant plant species

leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
western sandcherry (Prunus pumila var. besseyi), shrub
Woods' rose (Rosa woodsii), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
stiff sunflower (Helianthus pauciflorus), other herbaceous
scaly blazing star (Liatris squarrosa var. glabrata), other herbaceous
dotted blazing star (Liatris punctata), other herbaceous
white heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), other herbaceous

Figure 8. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (kg/hectare)	Representative value (kg/hectare)	High (kg/hectare)
Grass/Grasslike	2292	2712	3094
Forb	146	224	336
Shrub/Vine	28	90	157
Total	2466	3026	3587

Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7137, Central NE Loess Hills, warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant. Warm-season grass dominant with cool-season plants sub-dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	8	15	24	23	15	5	5	0	0

Community 1.2
Degraded Native Grass Community

The Degraded Native Grass Community is resilient and can be found on areas that have been subject to season-long grazing for long periods of time. The potential vegetation is about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs and 10 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses are the less palatable switchgrass, little bluestem, and prairie sandreed. The more palatable sand bluestem, and Indiangrass are still present, but are no longer dominant. The major forb component has been less affected, and is still dominated by white heath aster, scaly and dotted blazing star, and Cuman ragweed. The dominant shrubs are leadplant and rose. Big and sand bluestem and the needlegrasses have decreased, while prairie sandreed and switchgrass have increased. Forbs remain in balance similar to the Reference Community and shrubs, such as rose and leadplant, show a moderate increase under current management conditions. This plant community maintains diversity while sustaining production. Total annual production ranges from 1,800 to 3,200 pounds per acre of air-dried vegetation with representative value of 2,500 pounds per acre.

Dominant plant species

leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
Woods' rose (Rosa woodsii), shrub
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
stiff sunflower (Helianthus pauciflorus), other herbaceous
dotted blazing star (Liatris punctata), other herbaceous
scaly blazing star (Liatris squarrosa var. glabrata), other herbaceous
white heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), other herbaceous

Figure 10. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (kg/hectare)	Representative value (kg/hectare)	High (kg/hectare)
Grass/Grasslike	1861	2438	2970
Forb	135	210	308
Shrub/Vine	22	155	308
Total	2018	2803	3586

Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6534, NE/SD Sandhills, Native Grasslands. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant, mid- and tallgrasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	5	15	25	30	10	7	3

Community 1.3
At-Risk Native Grass Community

This plant community develops with heavy, usually season-long, livestock grazing. Plant diversity is diminished as the tallgrass species are removed from the plant community. Small, isolated plants may exist in a prostrate form to avoid defoliation. The potential vegetation is about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include blue grama and western wheatgrass. Other grasses or grass-likes include sand dropseed, needle and thread, prairie sandreed, and sedges. Dominant forbs include field sagewort, white heath aster, scaly and dotted blazing star, and Cuman ragweed. Dominant shrubs include rose and western sandcherry. Cool-season plants such as western wheatgrass, prairie junegrass, and Scribner's panicum increase. Blue grama also increases due to its ability to avoid grazing because of its short growth form. Forbs such as Cuman ragweed and field sagewort tend to increase, especially in periods of favorable moisture. Rose, leadplant, and western sandcherry diminish while soapweed yucca, cactus, and other less palatable shrubs increase. Total annual production ranges from 1,400 to 2,000 pounds per acre of air-dried vegetation with a representative value 1,700 pounds per acre.

Dominant plant species

soapweed yucca (Yucca glauca), shrub
brittle pricklypear (Opuntia fragilis), shrub
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
field sagewort (Artemisia campestris), other herbaceous
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
dotted blazing star (Liatris punctata), other herbaceous
scaly blazing star (Liatris squarrosa var. glabrata), other herbaceous
white heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), other herbaceous

Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (kg/hectare)	Representative value (kg/hectare)	High (kg/hectare)
Grass/Grasslike	1463	1658	1833
Forb	90	191	308
Shrub/Vine	17	57	101
Total	1570	1906	2242

Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6540, NE/SD Sandhills, Native Grass, Grama/Wheatgrass. Warm-season and cool-season co-dominant, short and mid grasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	10	20	25	20	15	5	0	0	0

Community 1.4
Excessive Litter Community

The Excessive Litter Community occurs after an extended period of non-use by domestic livestock and a disrupted fire regime. Litter has clearly increased and few sedges or shortgrasses are present. A significant amount of plant basal cover has been replaced by litter. Bunch grasses have become decadent, often with dead centers, and exhibit pedestalling. Vegetative reproduction is extremely limited. The potential vegetation is about 90 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 5 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The dominant grasses include sand bluestem, prairie sandreed, little bluestem, and needlegrasses. Other grasses present include sand dropseed, switchgrass, and prairie junegrass. The dominant forbs include Cuman ragweed and field sagewort. The shrubs present in this plant community include rose, leadplant, and western sandcherry. Plant diversity has decreased and native plants tend to occur in individual colonies. This plant community has a high amount of litter covering the soil between widely dispersed mature plants. Recovery can be rapid with the restoration of grazing or fire. Soil erosion is low, and infiltration and runoff are not significantly different than the Reference Community.

Dominant plant species

Woods' rose (Rosa woodsii), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
western sandcherry (Prunus pumila var. besseyi), shrub
sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata), grass
porcupinegrass (Hesperostipa spartea), grass
field sagewort (Artemisia campestris), other herbaceous
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7137, Central NE Loess Hills, warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant. Warm-season grass dominant with cool-season plants sub-dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	8	15	24	23	15	5	5	0	0

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Continuous season-long grazing, growing season haying, overstocking, and prolonged drought are all occurrences that will move this community to the Degraded Native Grass Community.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.4

Prolonged interruption of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert this community to the Excessive Litter Community.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Managed grazing, reduced stocking rate, and appropriately timed prescribed fire will move this community to the Reference Community.

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Continuous season-long grazing, growing season haying, overstocking, and prolonged drought will further degrade this community, causing a shift to the At-Risk Native Grass Community.

Pathway 1.2C
Community 1.2 to 1.4

Prolonged interruption of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert this community to the Excessive Litter Community.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Managed grazing, reduced stocking rate, and appropriately timed prescribed will allow this community to recover to the Degraded Native Grass Community.

Pathway 1.4A
Community 1.4 to 1.1

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will return the site to the Reference Community.

Pathway 1.4B
Community 1.4 to 1.2

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will return the site to the Degraded Native Grass Community.

State 2
Native/Invaded Grass State

This state consists of one plant community that has deteriorated from the Reference State and is dominated by warm-season shortgrasses and cool-season grasses. It may be invaded by introduced species such as smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass. The loss of native warm-season tall- and midgrasses and functional groups results in increased bare soil. This ultimately reduces forage productivity, soil moisture retention, organic matter, and plant vigor.

Dominant plant species

soapweed yucca (Yucca glauca), shrub
twistspine pricklypear (Opuntia macrorhiza), shrub
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Scribner's rosette grass (Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
field sagewort (Artemisia campestris), other herbaceous
common sunflower (Helianthus annuus), other herbaceous
Rocky Mountain beeplant (Cleome serrulata), other herbaceous

Community 2.1
Native Shortgrass/Invaded Grass Community

With sustained heavy stocking during the summer months this plant community will become dominated by cool-season grasses and forbs. The potential vegetation is about 75 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 20 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include Kentucky bluegrass, sand dropseed, and blue grama. Other grasses or grass-likes include Scribner's rosettegrass, sedges, and smooth brome. Dominant forbs include field sagewort, Cuman ragweed, Rocky Mountain beeplant, common sunflower, and a variety of thistles. The palatable warm-season tall- and midgrasses are replaced by blue grama and sand dropseed. Cool-season grasses such as Scribner's panicum, field brome, and Kentucky bluegrass increase to fill the void left by the disappearing warm-season tallgrasses. Sedges will flourish in the understory. Cuman ragweed and field sagewort increase in abundance along with other less-palatable forbs. Invading thistles and annual forbs increase along with grazing resistant shrubs such as cactus and soapweed yucca. Once this plant community is reached, time and external resources will be needed to see any significant recovery. Total annual production ranges from 900 to 1,500 pounds per acre of air-dried vegetation with a representative value 1,200 pounds per acre.

Dominant plant species

twistspine pricklypear (Opuntia macrorhiza), shrub
soapweed yucca (Yucca glauca), shrub
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Scribner's rosette grass (Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
field sagewort (Artemisia campestris), other herbaceous
common sunflower (Helianthus annuus), other herbaceous
Rocky Mountain beeplant (Cleome serrulata), other herbaceous

Figure 15. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (kg/hectare)	Representative value (kg/hectare)	High (kg/hectare)
Grass/Grasslike	936	1137	1328
Forb	62	168	280
Shrub/Vine	11	40	73
Total	1009	1345	1681

Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6541, NE/SD Sandhills, Native Grass, Cool Seasons/Forbs. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant, short & mid grasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	10	30	25	15	5	5	5	0	0

State 3
Erosion State

This state includes two community phases that have very little plant cover, few native warm or cool-season grasses and few perennial forbs. The vegetation that is present consists of pioneer species. The majority of the plants are annual forbs with a lesser amount of short-lived perennial species. Erosion has occurred and may still be occurring. There is very little plant cover, little forage production and poor soil quality.

Dominant plant species

blowout grass (Redfieldia flexuosa), grass
sandhill muhly (Muhlenbergia pungens), grass
sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
lemon scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum), other herbaceous

Community 3.1
Active Blowout Community

This plant community can be reached from any other plant community with significant disturbance. Large areas of blowing sand result in movement and possible enlargement of the blowout. Evaporation and transpiration of existing plants are extremely high due to bare ground, lack of litter, and few plants. Drought tolerant species exemplified by sandhill muhly and blowout grass are present.

Dominant plant species

blowout grass (Redfieldia flexuosa), grass
sandhill muhly (Muhlenbergia pungens), grass

Community 3.2
Annual/Pioneer Perennials Community

As succession progresses, sandhill muhly, blowout grass, and sand bluestem begin to colonize. Sandbur, lemon scurfpea, and annual sunflower follow, with prairie sandreed, hairy grama, and rose slowly becoming evident in this plant community.

Dominant plant species

Woods' rose (Rosa woodsii), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
blowout grass (Redfieldia flexuosa), grass
sandhill muhly (Muhlenbergia pungens), grass
sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
lemon scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum), other herbaceous
common sunflower (Helianthus annuus), other herbaceous

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

With prescribed grazing, this plant community may move to the Annual/Pioneer Perennial Plant Community.

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1

Heavy grazing or overgrazing will eventually shift Annual/Pioneer Perennials to the Active Blowout community phase.

State 4
Invaded Woody State

This state includes one plant community that has been invaded by eastern redcedar. The woody species are present due to lack of prescribed fire and brush management. The sites typically have a loss of native warm-season grasses, reduced forage production and reduced soil quality.

Dominant plant species

eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass

Community 4.1
Eastern Redcedar

This plant community can develop whenever eastern redcedar is adjacent to the originating plant community, and encroachment occurs. This can occur in areas adjacent to a seed source, such as near windbreaks. With prescribed burning, encroachment can be controlled. This plant community has a canopy cover of 15% or more mature trees. Total tree canopy cover can exceed 40%. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the increase in canopy cover. This plant community is resistant to change. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase. The water cycle is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced because of interception of rainfall by the canopy. Runoff is not greatly increased, as the soil is still capable of absorbing the rainfall that reaches the soil surface.

Dominant plant species

eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

State 5
Sodbusted State

The Sodbusted State is a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. If farming operations are suspended, the site can be abandoned or seeded to a perennial grass mixture. When tilled and abandoned the Natural Reclamation Community will result. When seeded the resulting community will be either the Reseeded Native Grass Community or the Seeded Pasture Community depending upon the type of seeding implemented. Permanent alterations of soils and hydrology make restoration to the Reference State extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Community 5.1
Reseeded Native Grass Community

The Reseeded Native Grass Community does not contain native remnants and has been seeded to a mixture of native grasses and forbs. The community will vary considerably depending on the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, how long ago the stand was established, and the management of the stand since establishment. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will be needed to maintain productivity and desirable species. There are several factors that make seeded rangeland a different grazing resource than native rangeland. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved or selected varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact the production level and palatability. Species diversity on seeded rangeland is often lower and native forb species generally take longer to establish. This results in uneven utilization when both seeded and native rangelands are in the same grazing unit. Therefore, the seeded rangeland should be managed as a separate grazing unit if possible unless intensive grazing management methods are used.

Community 5.2
Seeded Pasture Community

This plant community does not contain native remnants and will vary considerably depending on the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, how long ago the stand was established, and the management of the stand since establishment. There are several factors that make seeded pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a rangeland grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact the production level and palatability. Species diversity on seeded pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the level of management and grass species seeded. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for forage purposes. Single species stands of big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, or well managed cool-season grasses and legume plantings with improved varieties will provide the relatively high yields for the site.

Community 5.3
Natural Reclamation Community

This plant community consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed (all previous plant communities were destroyed) and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter/carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plow-pan or compacted layer can be formed which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. Erosion is a concern. The vegetation on this plant community varies greatly, sometimes being dominated by little bluestem, threeawn, sand dropseed, prairie sandreed, Canadian horseweed (marestail), common sunflower, tarragon, and/or Cuman ragweed. Other plants that occur on this plant community include rose, soapweed yucca, sand bluestem, switchgrass, and needle and thread. Compared to the Reference Community, warm-season natives have decreased and may be absent. Annual forbs and grasses have become established in the plant community. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.

Dominant plant species

soapweed yucca (Yucca glauca), shrub
Woods' rose (Rosa woodsii), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
Fendler threeawn (Aristida purpurea var. longiseta), grass
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus), other herbaceous
Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis), other herbaceous
common sunflower (Helianthus annuus), other herbaceous
prairie sunflower (Helianthus petiolaris), other herbaceous

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Heavy grazing and inadequate rest periods can convert this plant state to the Native/Invaded Grass State. Continuous heavy grazing tends to accelerate this movement.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Heavy grazing, prolonged drought, and soil disturbance can cause the site to transition from the Reference State to Erosion State.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

Encroachment from lack of disturbance and disruption of the fire regime causes a transition from the Reference State to the Invaded Woody State.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 5

Tillage followed by abandonment of cropping causes a transition from the Reference State to the Sodbusted State.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

With long-term prescribed grazing and adequate recovery periods, this plant community will move through the successional stages leading to the Reference State. This change will require a long period of time and may be difficult to attain if the grama sod is extensive.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Heavy grazing, wildfires, and other disturbance causes transition from Native/Invaded Grass State to Erosion State.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

Encroachment of eastern redcedar due to lack of disturbance and the disruption of the fire regime causes a transition from the Native/Invaded Grass State to the Invaded Woody State.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

Tillage and abandonment of cropping causes transition from the Native/Invaded Grass State to the Sodbusted State

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

Under long-term prescribed grazing, including adequate rest periods, succession will progress leading to the Reference State. The slope, aspect, size, and relative abundance of perennial plants will influence the rate that change will occur.

Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 2

Under long-term prescribed grazing, including adequate rest periods, succession will progress returning the site to the Native/Invaded Grass State. The slope, aspect, size, and relative abundance of perennial plants will influence the rate that change will occur.

Transition T3B
State 3 to 4

Encroachment of eastern redcedar due to lack of mechanical disturbance and the disruption of the fire regime converts the Erosion State to the Invaded Woody State.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

Adequate management that includes prescribed burning, brush management and prescribed grazing can restore this state to the previous state.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2

Adequate management that includes prescribed burning, brush management, and prescribed grazing can restore this state to the previous state.

Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3

Adequate management that includes prescribed burning, brush management and prescribed grazing can restore this state to the previous state.

Transition R4D
State 4 to 5

Adequate management that includes prescribed burning, brush management and prescribed grazing can restore this state to the previous state.

Restoration pathway T5A
State 5 to 4

Encroachment of eastern redcedar due to disruption of the fire regime and lack of mechanical treatment causes a transition to the Invaded Woody State.

Additional community tables

Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (kg/hectare)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-season Tallgrass			1059–1513
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	605–1059	20–35
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	605–908	20–30
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	303–605	10–20
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	151–303	5–10
2	Warm-season Midgrass			605–908
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	454–757	15–25
	sand lovegrass	ERTR3	Eragrostis trichodes	151–303	5–10
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	0–151	0–5
3	Warm-season Shortgrass			151–303
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	30–151	1–5
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–151	0–5
	sandhill muhly	MUPU2	Muhlenbergia pungens	0–91	0–3
4	Native Cool-season Grass			30–303
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	151–303	5–10
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	151–303	5–10
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	30–91	1–3
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	30–91	1–3
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	30–91	1–3
5	Grass-likes			0–61
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	0–61	1–3
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–30	–
Forb
6	Forbs			151–303
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–61	0–2
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	30–61	1–2
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–61	0–2
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–61	0–2
	prairie spiderwort	TROC	Tradescantia occidentalis	0–61	0–2
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–61	0–2
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	0–61	0–2
	hairy false goldenaster	HEVI4	Heterotheca villosa	0–61	0–2
	scaly blazing star	LISQG	Liatris squarrosa var. glabrata	0–61	0–2
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–61	0–2
	fourpoint evening primrose	OERH	Oenothera rhombipetala	0–61	0–2
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–61	0–2
	large beardtongue	PEGR7	Penstemon grandiflorus	0–61	0–2
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–61	0–2
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–61	0–2
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	0–30	0–1
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	0–30	0–1
Shrub/Vine
7	Shrubs			30–151
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	30–91	1–3
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–91	0–3
	pricklypear	OPUNT	Opuntia	0–61	0–2
	western sandcherry	PRPUB	Prunus pumila var. besseyi	0–30	0–1
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–30	0–1

Table 10. Community 1.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (kg/hectare)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-season Tallgrass			981–1401
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	560–841	–
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	280–560	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	140–420	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–280	–
2	Warm-season Midgrass			560–841
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	560–841	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	0–280	–
3	Cool-season Bunchgrass			280–420
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	140–280	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–140	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	28–140	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	28–140	–
4	Warm-season Shortgrass			28–280
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	28–280	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–140	–
	purple lovegrass	ERSP	Eragrostis spectabilis	0–140	–
5	Cool-season Rhizomatous Grass			28–280
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	28–280	–
6	Grass-like			28–140
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	28–140	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–56	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			0–140
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–140	–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	0–140	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–56	–
Forb
8	Forbs			140–280
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–56	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–56	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–56	–
	scaly blazing star	LISQG	Liatris squarrosa var. glabrata	0–56	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–28	–
	large beardtongue	PEGR7	Penstemon grandiflorus	0–28	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–28	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–28	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–28	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–28	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	0–28	–
	thistle	CIRSI	Cirsium	0–28	–
	prairie spiderwort	TROC	Tradescantia occidentalis	0–28	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–28	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–28	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–28	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			28–280
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–140	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–140	–
	western sandcherry	PRPUB	Prunus pumila var. besseyi	0–28	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–17	–

Table 11. Community 1.3 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (kg/hectare)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-season Shortgrass			476–667
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	381–572	–
	purple lovegrass	ERSP	Eragrostis spectabilis	95–191	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–95	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–95	–
2	Cool-season Rhizomatous Grass			191–381
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	191–381	–
3	Warm-season Tallgrass			95–381
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	95–286	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–95	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–95	–
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	0–95	–
4	Cool-season Bunchgrass			95–381
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–191	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	19–191	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	95–191	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–95	–
5	Non-Native Grasses			95–381
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–191	–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	0–191	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–95	–
6	Warm-season Midgrass			191–286
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	95–286	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	95–286	–
7	Grass-likes			95–191
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	95–191	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–95	–
Forb
8	Forbs			95–286
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–57	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–57	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–38	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–38	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–38	–
	scaly blazing star	LISQG	Liatris squarrosa var. glabrata	0–38	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–38	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–19	–
	fourpoint evening primrose	OERH	Oenothera rhombipetala	0–19	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	0–19	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–19	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–19	–
	prairie spiderwort	TROC	Tradescantia occidentalis	0–19	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–19	–
	thistle	CIRSI	Cirsium	0–19	–
	Rocky Mountain beeplant	CLSE	Cleome serrulata	0–19	–
	common sunflower	HEAN3	Helianthus annuus	0–19	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–19	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			19–95
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–95	–
	western sandcherry	PRPUB	Prunus pumila var. besseyi	0–19	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–19	–

Table 12. Community 2.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (kg/hectare)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Midgrass			135–269
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	0–67	–
2	Warm-Season Shortgrass			67–269
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–135	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	67–135	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–67	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–67	–
3	Cool-Season Bunch Grass			67–202
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	135–269	–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–67	–
4	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grass			13–135
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	67–202	–
	purple lovegrass	ERSP	Eragrostis spectabilis	0–135	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–67	–
5	Grass-Like			67–135
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	13–135	–
6	Warm-Season Tallgrass			0–67
7	Non-Native Grass			135–471
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	135–269	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–202	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–135	–
Forb
8	Forb			67–269
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–67	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–67	–
	thistle	CIRSI	Cirsium	0–40	–
	Rocky Mountain beeplant	CLSE	Cleome serrulata	0–40	–
	common sunflower	HEAN3	Helianthus annuus	0–40	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–40	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–40	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–40	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–27	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–13	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–13	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–13	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–13	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrub			13–67
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–67	–
	Woods' rose	ROWO	Rosa woodsii	0–13	–
	prairie rose	ROAR3	Rosa arkansana	0–13	–

Interpretations

Animal community

LIVESTOCK - Grazing Interpretations:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide year-long forage for cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements, and added protein allows ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.

The following table lists annual, suggested initial stocking rates with average growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended in all cases to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Plant Community - Production - AUM/ac*
Community 1.1, Reference Community: 2,700 lbs/ac, 0.74 AUM/Ac
Community 1.2, Degraded Native Grass Community: 2,500 lbs/ac, 0.69 AUM/Ac
Community 1.3, At-Risk Native Grass Community: 1,700 lbs/ac, 0.47 AUM/Ac
Community 2.1, Native Shortgrass/Invaded Grass Community: 1,200 lbs/ac, 0.33 AUM/Ac

* Based upon the following conditions: continuous season-long grazing by cattle under average growing conditions, 25 percent harvest efficiency. Air dry forage requirements based on 3 percent of animal body weight, or 912 lbs/AU/month. (Refer to USDA NRCS, National Range and Pasture Handbook).

WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 71 lies primarily within the Mixed-grass prairie ecosystem. Though European settlers have converted about half of this landscape to farmland, a significant portion of the prairie is still intact. This area still consists of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional wetlands and limited woody riparian corridors. These habitats historically provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects still provide a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrive in this landscape.

The Mixed-grass prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement, elimination of fire, overgrazing, and some habitat fragmentation significantly altered the appearance and functionality of the entire ecosystem. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free-roaming bison herds have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats that they provide. Fragmentation has reduced habitat quality for numerous area-sensitive species, as highlighted by the decline of the greater prairie chicken.

Historically, an ecological mosaic of the sites provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands. Most of these important habitat features and components are intact, providing upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds; nesting and escape cover for waterfowl; forbs and insects for brood-rearing habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores.

Disruption of the natural fire regime and lack of appropriate grazing management are the greatest threats to the ecosystem dynamics today. Tree and shrub encroachment from lack of fire creates habitat that favors generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove, and provides perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality on native bird populations. Introduced species such as smooth bromegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), and Canada thistle further degrade the biological integrity of many areas of the prairie.

Hydrological functions

Hydrology Functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. Normal rainfall is 18-25 inches per year. Soils on this site are in Hydrologic Soil Group A (low runoff and high infiltration even when thoroughly wetted). Water transmission through Group A soils is normally greater than 0.30 inches per hour. Runoff is expected to occur only during the most intense storms (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

For the Bluestem/Prairie Sandreed Plant Community, rills and gullies should not typically be present. Water flow patterns should be barely distinguishable if at all present. Pedestals are only slightly present in association with bunchgrasses such as little bluestem. Litter typically falls in place, and signs of movement are not common. Chemical and physical crusts are rare to non-existent. Overall, this site has the appearance of being very stable and productive.

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting opportunities for upland game species. The wide variety of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are present on the site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from field observations, NRCS clipping data, and other inventory data.

Field Offices:
Albion, Broken Bow, Burwell, Central City, Fullerton, Grand Island, Greeley, Kearney, Lexington, Loup City, North Platte, Ord, St. Paul, Thedford

Other references

USDA NRCS Water & Climate Center, USDA NRCS National Range and Pasture Handbook, USDA NRCS Soil Surveys from various counties, Atlas of the Sandhills.

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. (http://hpcc.unl.edu, accessed 12/05/16)

Johnsgaard, P.A. 2001. “The Nature of Nebraska.” University of Nebraska Press.

LaGrange, T.G. 2015. Final Report submitted to EPA for the project entitled: Nebraska’s Wetland Condition Assessment: An Intensification Study in Support of the 2011 National Survey (CD# 97714601), and the related project entitled: Nebraska's Supplemental Clean Water Act §106 Funds, as Related to Participation in National Wetland Condition Assessment (I – 97726201). Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Lincoln.

Muhs, Daniel R., E. Bettis III, J. Aleinikoff, J. McGeehin, J. Beann, G. Skipp, B. Marshall, H. Roberts, W. Johnson, and R. Benton.
"Origin and paleoclimatic significance of late Quaternary loess in Nebraska: Evidence from stratigraphy, chronology, sedimentology, and geochemistry" (2008). USGS Staff -- Published Research. Paper 162. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usgsstaffpub/162 Accessed 12/05/16.

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. NRCS National Ecological Site Handbook. January, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Section 4. August, 2011.

Personal communications with professional ecologists and wildlife experts.

Rolfsmeier, S.B. and G. Steinauer. 2010. "Terrestrial Ecological Systems and Natural Communities of Nebraska", (version IV)
Nebraska Natural Heritage Program.

USDA, NRCS. National Water and Climate Center, Portland, OR. http://wcc.nrcs.usda.gov Accessed 12/05/16.

USDA, NRCS.1997. National Range and Pasture Handbook.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, Fort Collins, CO. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov Accessed 12/05/16.

USDA, NRCS. 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5 http://plants.usda.gov Accessed 12/05/16. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA.

USDA, NRCS, various published soil surveys.

Contributors

Dana Larsen
Doug Whisenhunt
Nadine Bishop

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 1/08/2025

Acknowledgments

My sincere thanks to the ESD team that helped revise this document.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	Jeff Nichols, Nadine Bishop
Contact for lead author	jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov
Date	11/30/2024
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site.
Presence of water flow patterns:
None. Water flow patterns are not expected on this site.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None. Pedestals and/or terracettes are not expected on this site.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is 10 percent or less. Bare ground patches should be less than 2 inches (5.1cm) and scattered across the site. Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), litter, standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae).
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. Wind scoured and depositional areas are not expected on this site.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
None. Litter movement is not expected on this site.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability ratings will be 5 to 6, typically 6. Interspaces are quite small and there should be no difference between interspaces and under canopy. High root content and organic matter will be present in the soil surface.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
The A horizon is 5 to 14 inches (12 to 36 cm) thick. Soils are predominantly loamy fine sand and fine sandy loam. Color of A-horizon is dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) dry and very dark gray (10YR/3/1) moist for loamy fine sand soils to grayish brown (10YR 5/2) dry, and very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) moist with fine sandy loams. Structure ranges from weak coarse blocky, weak coarse subangular blocky to weak medium granular.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Plant community composition of 70 to 90 percent perennial grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 5 to 10 percent shrubs will optimize infiltration on the site. The grass and grass-like component is made up of native, perennial, warm-season, tall, rhizomatous grasses (35-50%), native, perennial, warm-season, mid-grasses (20-30%), native, perennial, cool-season grasses (5-10%), native, perennial, warm-season, short grasses (5-10%), and grass-likes (0-2%).

Infiltration can be adversely impacted by the invasion of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, tall fescue, and trees when present above 10 percent (subdominant designation).
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. No compaction layers occur naturally on this site.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tallgrass, 945-1350#/ac, 35-50% (4 species minimum): sand bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, prairie sandreed.

Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tallgrass, 875-1250#/ac, 35-50% (3 species minimum): sand bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, big bluestem.

Phase 1.3
1. Native, Warm-season, Shortgrass, 425-595, 25-35% (2 species minimum): blue grama, hairy grama, thin paspalum, purple lovegrass.

Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, warm-season midgrass, 540-810 #/ac, 20-30% (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sand dropseed, sand lovegrass.

Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, warm-season midgrass, 500-750 #/ac, 20-30% (1 species minimum): little bluestem, sand dropseed.

2. Native, cool-season, bunchgrass, 250-375 #/ac, 10-15% (3 species minimum): needle and thread, porcupinegrass, prairie Junegrass, Scribner's rosette grass

Phase 1.3
1. Native, Cool-Season, Rhizomatous Grass, 170-340 #/ac, 10-20% (1 species minimum): western wheatgrass.

2. Native, warm-season, tallgrass, 85-340 #/ac, 5-a 20%, (2 species minimum) - big bluestem, sand bluestem, prairie sandreed, switchgrass.

3. Cool-season, bunchgrass, 85-340, 5-20%, (3 species minimum) - needle and thread, porcupinegrass, prairie Junegrass, Scribner's rosette grass.

4. Non-native grasses, 85-340 #/ac, 0-20%, (0 species minimum): smooth brome, Kentucky bluegrass, cheatgrass.

5. Native, warm-season, midgrass, 170-255 #/ac, 10-15%, (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sand dropseed.

6. Forbs, 85-255 #/ac, 5-15% (0 species minimum): forbs present vary from location to location.

Other:
Minor - Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, shortgrasses, 135-270 #/ac, 5-10%: blue grama, hairy grama, sandhill muhly.

2. Native forbs (perennial and annual), 135-270 #/ac, 5-10%: species vary from location to location.

3. Native, perennial, cool-season grass, 27-270 #/ac, 1-10%: western wheatgrass, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, prairie Junegrass, Scribner's rosette grass.

4. Shrubs, 27-135 #/ac, 1-5%: leadplant, prickly pear, western sandcherry, rose.

Minor - Phase 1.2
1. Native forbs (perennial and annual), 125-250 #/ac, 5-10%: species vary from location to location.

2. Native, warm-season, shortgrass, 25-250 #/ac, 1-10%: blue grama, thin paspalum, purple lovegrass;

3. Native, cool-season, rhizomatous grass, 25-250 #/ac, 1-10%: western wheatgrass.

4. Shrubs, 25-250 #/ac, 1-10%: leadplant, western sandcherry, other shrubs.

5. Grass-likes, 25-125 #/ac, 1-5%: sedges.

6. Non-native Grasses, 0-125 #/ac, 0-5%: smooth brome, Kentucky bluegrass, cheatgrass.

Minor - Phase 1.3
1. Grass-likes, 85-170 #/5-10%: sedges.

2. Shrubs, 17-85 #/ac, 1-5%: western sandcherry, rose, other shrubs.

Trace - Phase 1.1
1. Grass-likes, 0-54 #/ac, 0-2%: sedges, other grass-likes.

Additional:
The Reference Community (1.1) includes seven F/S Groups. These groups in order of expected abundance are native, perennial, warm-season tallgrass; native, perennial, warm-season midgrass; native, perennial, warm-season short grass; native forb (perennial and annual); native, perennial, cool-season grass; shrub; and grass-likes.

The Degraded Native Grass Community includes nine F/S groups. These groups in order of expected abundance are native, perennial, warm-season tallgrass; native, perennial, warm-season midgrass; native, perennial, cool-season bunchgrass; native forb; native, perennial, warm-season short grass; native, perennial, cool-season, rhizomatous grass; shrub; grass-likes; and non-native grass.

The At-Risk Native Grass Community (1.3) also includes nine groups.
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
A few (less than 3%) dead centers may occur in bunchgrasses. Shrubs may show some dead branches as plants age.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter cover is evenly distributed throughout the site and is expected to be 80-90% and a depth of 0.25 inches. Kentucky bluegrass excessive litter can negatively impact the functionality of this site.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Low: 2,200 lbs/ac, Normal: 2,700 lbs/ac, High 3,200 lbs/ac
Annual-production is 2,700 pounds per acre in a year with normal precipitation and temperatures. Low and High production years should yield 2,200 and 3,200 pounds per acre respectively.
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, silver bluestem, Caucasian bluestem, tall fescue, eastern redcedar, honey locust, musk thistle, common mullein, Sericea lespedeza, and others as they become known.

See Nebraska Invasive Species website: https://neinvasives.com/plants.
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
AAll perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to climatic conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.

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Natural ResourcesConservation Service

Ecological site R071XY054NE

Sandy

Last updated: 1/08/2025 Accessed: 04/08/2025

General information

Figure 1. Mapped extent

MLRA notes

Classification relationships

Ecological site concept

Associated sites

Similar sites

Figure 2. Block diagram

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Ecosystem states

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)

Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Last updated: 1/08/2025
Accessed: 04/08/2025