Physiographic features

The surface of this area is covered mainly by lacustrine deposits over glacial till. The lake plain consists of sands deposited by high energy shoreline processes which reworked glacial outwash deltas of post-glacial Lake Chicago. Broad sandy lake plains map units are associated with outwash deltas. Dune and swale topography characterizes some areas in which sandy lake plain map units occur on ridges within a matrix of moderately well drained to poorly drain swales. Elevations range from 180 m (near lake level) to 230 m above sea level.

Bedrock has no influence on local topography or soils in this area. Bedrock is buried beneath 10-200 m (33-656 feet) of surface deposits and consists primarily of limestone and dolomite in Indiana and sandstone and shale in Michigan.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Climatic features

The southeastern Lake Michigan lake plain and adjacent lake influenced moraines have a humid warm continental climate with cold winters and warm summers.

Just over half of the precipitation is distributed during the warmer half of the year with a significant portion of the precipitation occurring as heavy downpours during thunderstorms. Thunderstorm activity is enhanced inland by lake breeze fronts, while it is diminished near the lakeshore by the stabilizing effect of the cooler lake waters. Occasionally, thunderstorm microbursts cause localized high winds which open single tree gaps in forest canopies, or more rarely, tornados and derechos (severe straight-line winds) open larger gaps. Fall storms bring more frequent strong winds, but with impacts moderated by the lack of leaves (wind resistance) in the canopy. During July, average precipitation lags potential evapotranspiration, resulting in droughty conditions in the upper soil horizons of upland sites. During dry years, this droughty period is extended into August and September, resulting in dry fuels and potential for wildfire over oak and pine dominated areas.

Winter precipitation is enhanced by lake effect snows, with 1.6 to 2.4 m (40-95 inches) falling annually within the snow belt. Peak snowfall occurs at intermediate distances from the lake where topography enhances uplift. The combination of heavier winter snowfall, lake-delayed spring warm up, and frequent wetlands all contribute to relatively lower fire frequencies relative to inland locations with similarly droughty soils.

The area falls within USDA Hardiness zones 6a and 6b and has delayed spring warm up until after the last killing frosts, allowing for a wide range of fruit crops to be grown.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Climate stations used

• (1) ALLEGAN 5NE [USC00200128], Allegan, MI

• (2) GRAND HAVEN FIRE DEPT [USC00203290], Grand Haven, MI

• (3) HOLLAND WTP [USC00203858], Holland, MI

• (4) BLOOMINGDALE [USC00200864], Bloomingdale, MI

• (5) EAU CLAIRE 4 NE [USC00202445], Dowagiac, MI

• (6) MUSKEGON CO AP [USW00014840], Muskegon, MI

• (7) BENTON HARBOR AP [USW00094871], Benton Harbor, MI

Influencing water features

Hydrology has little direct impact on this ecological site as the water table is mostly below rooting depth. However, areas grading towards moderately well drained may have more water availability during droughts, especially for deeper rooted species. Likewise, the presence or absence of lakes, streams, and wetlands may have provided fuel breaks which affected historic fire return intervals on a given location and therefore dominant species.

Soil features

Sandy soils on the lake plain generally classify as excessively drained Typic Udipsamments (Plainfield series). These soils are generally 90-100% sand to a depth greater than 200 cm (80 inch) with no lamellae. The well sorted lacustrine sand parent material lacks carbonates and clay, resulting in predominately low pH values (unless limed) and low cation exchange capacities. Areas with eolian parent material ranges into the fine sand texture class (Oakville series), but are similar to the modal concept in all other properties. The A horizon is generally very dark brown to very dark gray and around 10-15 cm (4-6 inches) thick with a 0-5 cm (0-2 inch) layer of partially decomposed leaf litter on top. Occasionally a well-developed, lighter grayish colored E horizon may occur over a darker/browner Bw or Bs horizon. The soils closer to Lake Michigan tend to develop horizons with weak spodic characteristics and may classify as Spodic Udipsamments (Plainfield taxajunct) or Entic Haplorthods (Grattan). Sites with histories of grassland or savanna vegetation may develop thicker A horizons exceeding 25 cm (10 inches). These soils classify as having umbric epipedons and thus, classify as Psammentic Humudepts (no series, not mapped). Soils with loamy sand and sandy loam bands, the Lamellic Udipsamments (i.e. Coloma and Chelsea series) are sometimes associated with the edge of lake plain in the vicinity of finer glacial outwash and till, but are generally higher in pH and frequently have richer understories and therefore are outside the site concept.

Low available water holding capacity is an important property of these sandy soils, and these properties make vegetation more susceptible to drought. More deeply rooted species (e.g. pines, oaks) are partially spared from mild droughts by accessing deeper soil moisture or that moisture retained from past wetter periods. However, during periods of near to below normal temperatures and near to above normal precipitation (when potential evapotranspiration does not exceed rainfall) moisture is not a limiting factor as is soil fertility.

Sandy soils are likely more nitrogen limited than are most other upland soils. Nitrogen in ecosystems normally accumulates through atmospheric deposition (lightning) and nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. Nitrogen, once acquired into an ecosystem, is retained in soil organic matter or in biomass. Nitrogen, however, is lost through volatilization by fire or from post-fire leaching (Johnson and Turner, 2014), or through timber harvests. Sandy soils, with their higher rates of hydraulic conductivity, are particularly vulnerable to leaching of such nutrients. Insulation by a thick snowpack, or otherwise more moderate winter temperatures, such that occurs in the Lake Michigan snowbelt region, are thought to reduce frost induced mortality of soil microorganisms, thereby helping to biologically sequester inorganic nitrogen and reduce the amount that is lost to leaching (Henne, Hu, and Cleland, 2007). A snowpack may also help reduce spring fire frequency by maintaining leaf litter moisture (from meltwater and compaction) (Schaetzl 2002). Because of reduced fire frequencies, litter and associated nutrients persist and are able to be incorporated into the A horizon as organic matter and in subsequent plant biomass. Geographic variation in soil nitrogen availability, however, is not mapped in soil surveys, since nitrogen is considered a highly labile soil dynamic property. Nevertheless, natural community succession can result in changes in soil fertility that, once established, helps to perpetuate a component of of mesophytic, nitrogen-loving species such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum) and basswood (Tilia americana) than would normally be infrequent on droughty base poor soils (Mokma and Vance 1989). However, upon initiation of agriculture, soil nitrogen content is almost universally amended with the application of fertilizers, likely rendering it outside the natural range of variation for the reference conditions.

Spodic development in these soils often correlates with the occurrence of late successional mesophytic forests. Spodic development requires acidic and persistent leaf litter (especially hemlock - Tsuga canadensis, and various pine species) as a source for organic acids, which are essential to the podzolization process. Thick snowpacks assist in maintaining unfrozen soil conditions, allowing the acids to leach into the lower soil profile, and as they do, they complex with iron and aluminum compounds. In upland settings, such suitable conditions tend mainly to occur under a heavy snowpack (Schaetzl, 2002; Schaetzl, Luehmann, and Rothstein, 2015). Areas which burn more frequently do not retain leaf litter to generate organic acids, and areas outside the snowbelt do not have the spring flux of moisture necessary to carry the acids into the lower profile. The accumulation of organic matter in the spodic B horizon contributes to an increase in both cation exchange capacity and available water holding capacity. However, it is not clear that the properties of a spodic horizon are in and of themselves the most dominant factor in soil moisture and fertility relations, as compared to the direct effects of the snowmelt itself, or of a more fertile A horizon.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Animal community

The following wildlife species discussion emphasizes species of economic (game or fur trapping) or conservation concern which have suitable habitat within one or more community phases within the site concept or that are ecologically significant to the structure of community phases. The major references used to determine habitat suitability are NatureServe (2014), MNFI (2014), Harding, (1997), Chartier, et al.(2011), Brewer, et al. (1991), and Ehrlich, et al. (1988).Vertebrate nomenclature is consistent with NatureServe (2014).

Mammals
Large Herbivores

The largest herbivore in the region is white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), a browser that occupies a wide range of cover phases. Agricultural conversion and forest fragmentation, both of which are favorable to deer forage, and the extirpation of most natural predators has resulted in excess populations of deer across the entire area. Excess deer browse limits the continued recruitment of hemlock into the overstory and severely reduces the diversity of forbs in the understory (Rooney, 2001).

Larger grazing species such as elk or wapiti (Cervus elaphus canadensis) have historically occupied more open habitats in the region, but elk was extirpated from the region by the late 1800s.

Large Predators

Formerly, gray wolf (Canis lupus), American black bear (Ursus americanus), and cougar (Puma concolor), were among the top predators occupying all community phases. By the late 1800s these species were extirpated from the area through excess hunting and habitat conversion. Bobcat (Lynx rufus) and fisher (Pekania pennanti) ranked among the medium sized predators until they too were extirpated by the late 1800s. However, bear and bobcats may yet occur at the northern end of this ecological site concept, in Muskegon and Newaygo Counties, Michigan, adjacent to where they can still be hunted legally.

At present, the only native carnivore capable of preying on deer is the coyote (Canis latrans), which occupies all community phases. Medium-sized mammalian predators include gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes), both of which occupy wide range of community phases, however, gray fox prefers more forested phases.

Small Mammals

Small predators that occur across the span of community phases include striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) and long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata). Both forested and open phases of this ecological site provide suitable habitats for eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) and a various deermice and voles (Cricetidae) and shrews (Soricidae).
Among these of conservation concern is the woodland vole (Microtus pinetorum), which has the potential to occur in any of the forested phases.

Among the small arboreal mammals, eastern fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) and eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) are among the more conspicuous, being diurnal. Both squirrels are adaptable to this ecological site concept in community phases that contain nut bearing trees such as beech and oak. They also require cavities in trees or snags for hibernation and initial nesting. Fox squirrels favor more open and early successional forest, whereas the gray squirrels tend to be more common in more heavily forested areas.



Birds

Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is a large omnivorous bird that occupies a range of community phases within this ecological site concept. After becoming extirpated from Michigan due to over-hunting, wild turkey was successfully re-established across the entire region. Allegan County was the initial location in Michigan where turkeys became re-established in 1954 (Brewer, et al., 1991). Winter survivorship is maximized by availability of nut trees such as beech or oak, which are generally abundant in most forested community phases of this ecological site.

Ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) occurs in a range of early successional forest community phases (1.2, 1.3, 1.4), but has a particular affinity for young aspen clones (phase 1.4).

Passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) and blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) are historically important components of the avifauna responsible for the long distant dispersal of nut trees (beech and oaks), that occur in forested phases of this ecological site concept (Webb, 1986; Johnson & Webb III, 1989). The passenger pigeon is now extinct.

Woodpeckers such as Pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) and red-bellied woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus) are important creators of tree and snag cavities, in which they and many other animal taxa depend for nesting. As such, their frequency would be expected to increase with stand age and associated tree mortality.
Commonly occurring year-round residents in a broad range of habitats includes American robin (Turdus migratorius), cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum), American goldfinch (Spinus tristis), blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), northern cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis), northern flicker (Colaptes auratus), tufted titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor), and white-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis) (Chartier, Baldy, & Brenneman, 2011; eBird, 2014).
The following are commonly occurring migratory species that breed in open or shrubby early successional community phases: eastern towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus), chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina), indigo bunting (Passerina cyanea), field sparrow (Spizella pusilla), blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea), gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis). Less commonly occurring is Prairie Warbler (Setophaga discolor), a species of conservation interest that occupies open oak-pine barrens phases of this ecological site (Chartier, Baldy, & Brenneman, 2011; eBird, 2014).
The following are migratory bird species which commonly breed in forested community phases: red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus), ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla), eastern wood-pewee (Contopus virens), yellow-throated vireo (Vireo flavifrons), and American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla). Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) tends to occur in oak forest. The pine warbler (Setophaga pinus) is associated with forests with a pine component. Late successional beech-maple forests may be suitable for wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) and hooded warbler (Setophaga citrina) (Chartier, Baldy, & Brenneman, 2011; eBird, 2014).

Reptiles

Garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) prey upon soft invertebrates and amphibian across a wide range of habitats, including Sandy Lake Plain. Hognose snakes (Heterodon platirhinos), toad specialists, also occupy a wide range of cover types, but have a preference for sandy sites where they can most easily burrow. Blue racer (Coluber constrictor foxii) and Midland Ratsnake (Pantherophis spiloides, of the “black ratsnake” species complex) are the largest snakes in the area, preying upon small mammals and birds. Ratsnakes, which are of conservation interest, are partially arboreal, and would likely occupy forested community phases with a suitable amount of down woody debris.
Eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) is a terrestrial turtle that finds suitable habitat among a mixture of cover types, but is most frequent near water sources. Box turtles also require some degree of down woody debris for protective cover, as would be expected in later successional phases. In addition to their preferred forage habitats, most turtles also prefer bare terrestrial microsites in sand (or other suitably friable soils) in order to bury a clutch of eggs.

Amphibians

Wood frogs (Lithobates sylvaticus) are the most frequently encountered amphibians in wooded community phases. Toads (Anaxyrus americanus and A. fowleri) can be encountered under a wider range of cover types. Frogs and toads require small water bodies or wetland to occur nearby in which to breed. The red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus), which doesn’t require water to breed, may occur in late successional forest phases where humus and rotting logs maintain a high moisture environment.


Invertebrates


Ants can be significant seed dispersers and insect predators. Alleghany Mound Ants (Formica exsectoides) is among the more prominent and aggressive species making large mounds in a range of sandy ecological sites in forest edge or openings. Considerable ant induced plant mortality can occur in proximity of ant mounds whereby only Carex pensylvanica is allow to survive directly on the mounds.

Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) of conservation concern in the Sandy Lake Plain include: frosted elfin [butterfly] (Callophrys irus), Persius dusky wing [butterfly] (Erynnis persius persius), Ottoe skipper [butterfly] (Hesperia ottoe), Karner blue [butterfly] (Lycaeides melissa samuelis), blazing star borer [moth] (Papaipema beeriana), Sprague's pygarctia [moth] (Pygarctia spraguei). Larval host species on which these species are dependent include: lupine (Lupinus perennis) - Frosted elfin, Persius dusky wing, and Karner blue; blazing star (Liatris spp.) - blazing star borer; flowering spurge (Euphorbia corollata) - Sprague's pygarctia; little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and possibly other grasses - Ottoe skipper. Management for these species depends on having a diversity of nectaring forb species as well as key larval host plants, which are characteristic of early successional, fire-dependent, plant communities (Phases 1.2, 1.3). Local species viability depends on each fire event leaving unburned refugia to leave eggs or larvae unconsumed by fire. Large wildfires often burn unevenly and leave natural refugia. However, in small managed areas, prescribed fire should be employed judiciously to avoid burning the entire habitat.

Non-native invasive species

Hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) is currently devastating hemlock in the Southern Appalachians (Hessl & Pederson, 2013). Should this serious pest spread northwestward, it would potentially alter the late successional community phases by permanently eliminating hemlock as an important canopy component.

The scale insect, Cryptococcus fagisuga, is a vector of two different fungi responsible for beech bark disease, is a serious threat to the continued existence of beech, and have begun to spread into sites relatively close to this ecological site (O’Brien, et al., 2001).

Domesticated Livestock

This ecological site is not important in domesticated livestock production in this region. Open vegetation phases most suitable for livestock are subject to low productivity and drought, without irrigation and fertilizers.

Hydrological functions

This ecological site is a hydrological source, with much of the water from precipitation passing through into the groundwater.

Recreational uses

Recreational opportunities are mainly camping, hunting, hiking, botanizing, and bird watching.

Wood products

Red Maple (Acer rubrum)
Managed through a variety of silivicultural systems, including clearcutting, and regenerates by stump sprouting, but sometimes suppressed with herbicide and fire where oak is desired.
Wood is used for furniture, and cabinetry. It is a moderate density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.54).


Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra)
Managed by group selection and shelterwood systems, and typically requires presence of advance regeneration.
Wood is generally marketed with other related red oaks, and is used in flooring, furniture, cabinetry, etc. It is a high density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.63).


Black Oak (Quercus velutina)
Managed by group selection and shelterwood harvest.
Wood is grouped with other related red oaks, and is used in flooring, furniture, and cabinetry. It is a high density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.61).


American Beech (Fagus grandifolia)
Managed primarily by single tree selection systems.
Wood is very dense and is used in flooring, tool handles, and crates. It is a high density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.64).



Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)
Not typically managed for wood products, due to its small size. Can be managed by clearcut and aggressively regenerates by root suckers.
Wood is used in fence posts, pallets and crates , but is rarely of merchantable size for larger products. It is moderate density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.46).


Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus)
Frequently grown in plantations, but can regenerate naturally under various harvest methods like shelter wood and single tree or group selection.
Wood is used for general construction (dimensional lumber), poles, pulp and paper products and was formerly used for tall masts in ship building. It is a low density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.35).


White Oak (Quercus alba)
Managed by group selection or shelterwood harvest systems.
Wood is grouped with other related white oaks, and is used in furniture and is uniquely suitable (above all other woods) for its use in wine barrels and other applications were water resistance is required, such as boat building. It is a high density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.68).




Black Cherry (Prunus serotina)
Managed most typically with selection harvests, but can be clearcut to release advance regeneration.
Wood is highly valued for cabinetry and fine furniture. It is moderate density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.50).

Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum)
Managed primarily by single tree selection systems.
Wood is used for furniture, and cabinetry. It is a high density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.63).

Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)
Managed by single tree or group selection. Historically, larger stands established with white pine after fire prepared the seed bed. Otherwise it naturally regenerates under shade of other species, especially on rotting logs in mature forests.
Wood is used primarily as pulp, but formerly used for roofing, boxes and crates. Seldom cut due to value for wildlife winter cover. It is low density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.40).


Bigtooth Aspen (Populus grandidentata)
Managed by clearcutting and aggressively regenerates by root suckers.
Wood, along with other aspen species (sometimes called “popple”) is used primarily for pulp and paper products and particle board. It is a low density firewood (dry specific gravity: 0.39).

Sources include Miles & Smith (2009) and Burns & Honkala (1990), and Andy Henriksen expert knowledge.

Other products

Wild blueberries and blackberries may be sought in some early successional communities.

Table 23. Representative site productivity

Inventory data references

Depending on logistics, three levels of sampling intensity was employed in order to get minimum cover and stratum data needed to classify vegetation according to FGDC (2008):

High intensity plot: ocular estimated cover species by stratum for every vascular plant species found within a 20 x 20 m square plot. The plot was divided into 4 quarters wherein cover was estimated in each and averaged; cover estimates by species was adjusted to be consistent with estimated total understory and overstory cover. There were 4 fixed strata (Field 0-0.5 m, Shrub 0.5-5 m, Subcanopy 5-15 m, Canopy 15+m) for woody taxa, and single unlimited stratum for herbaceous taxa. The average top and bottom heights were estimated by species within each stratum. A variable radius plots using a prism from center of plot was used to estimate stem basal area; diameters (cm) and canopy heights (m) for all trees in variable radius plots. Species density was estimated from an inventory of species rooted within each of 4, 1 m² plots, centered in each quarter plot, and also taken from species totals found in the total 400 m² plot area.

Medium intensity plot: ocular estimated cover of each species by stratum for an indefinite area 5-10 m wide. A variable radius plots was also conducted in most instances to estimate basal area, diameter and heights. Species area estimate were not conducted for medium intensity plots, since the sampling area was not defined.

Low intensity plot: basal area by species was estimated with a variable radius plot. Basal area estimates were converted to cover equivalence in proportion to their basal areas, and consistent with the total canopy closure. Estimated ocular cover for most vascular plant found within 5-10 m radius for the most common strata that each species is found. There were no diameter or height measurements in the low intensity plots.

There were a total of 9 High intensity plots and 5 medium intensity plots in 2014 distributed in Allegan, Muskegon, and Ottawa Counties. A total of 6 low intensity vegetation points were conducted in 2014, and another 2 were conducted in 2013. Plots were assigned community phases after exploratory UPGMA cluster analysis of these data combined with data collected from adjacent moderately well drained and somewhat poorly drained soils types: phase 1.1 - 6 plots; phase 1.2 - 4-plots; phase 1.3 - 3 plots; 1.5 – 4 plots; and phase 1.6 – 1 plot. Phase 1.4 was inferred based on field reconnaissance and Landfire models. Data were averaged and rounded to the nearest percent (<5) or five percent (>5), and hard metric stratum heights and tree diameters were converted to feet and inches for display purposes.

Type locality

References

• USDA, N. 2018 (Date accessed). The PLANTS Database. http://plants.usda.gov.

Other references

Sandy Lake Plain as a land type concept is equivalent to the United States Forest Service Outwash Plains Ecological Land Type (ELT) 10, but only phases 10, 11, 12 which lack loamy banding and water tables within 200 cm. This ELT is based conceptually on both outwash and lake plain land forms. With additional spodic horizon development the sandy lake plain is similar in soil properties to Ice Contact Hill ELTs 20 and 30, but these ELTs are conceptually limited to dissimilar landforms.

Community Phase correlated to Michigan Natural Features Inventory Communities:
1.1 Dry-mesic Northern Forest
1.2 Dry Southern Forest Oak Barrens
1.3 Dry Sand Prairie Dry-mesic Prairie Oak Barrens
Oak-Pine Barrens

1.4 Dry-mesic Northern Forest
1.5 Dry-mesic Southern Forest Mesic Northern Forest
1.6 Mesic Northern Forest

Community phase as they relate to National Vegetation Classification Associations:
1.1 Pinus strobus - Quercus alba / (Corylus americana, Gaylussacia baccata) Forest Pinus strobus / Vaccinium spp. Forest
1.2 Quercus velutina - (Quercus ellipsoidalis) - Quercus alba / Deschampsia flexuosa Woodland Quercus velutina - Quercus alba / Vaccinium (angustifolium, pallidum) / Carex pensylvanica Forest
1.3 Pinus strobus - Quercus alba - (Quercus velutina) / Andropogon gerardii Wooded Herbaceous Vegetation
Quercus velutina - (Quercus alba) - Quercus ellipsoidalis / Schizachyrium scoparium - Lupinus perennis Wooded Herbaceous Vegetation Schizachyrium scoparium - Danthonia spicata - Carex pensylvanica - (Viola pedata) Herbaceous Vegetation
Schizachyrium scoparium - Sorghastrum nutans - Andropogon gerardii - Lespedeza capitata Sand Herbaceous Vegetation
1.4 Populus tremuloides - Betula papyrifera - (Acer rubrum, Populus grandidentata) Forest
1.5 Pinus strobus - Tsuga canadensis Great Lakes Forest
Quercus rubra - Quercus alba - (Quercus velutina, Acer rubrum) / Viburnum acerifolium Forest
1.6 Acer saccharum - Fagus grandifolia - Betula spp. / Maianthemum canadense Forest Tsuga canadensis - Fagus grandifolia - (Acer saccharum) Great Lakes Forest

Community phases correlated to NatureServe Systems:
1.1 Laurentian-Acadian Pine-Hemlock-Hardwood Forest Laurentian-Acadian Northern Pine-(Oak) Forest
1.2 North-Central Interior Dry Oak Forest and Woodland
North-Central Oak Barrens
1.3 Laurentian Pine-Oak Barrens North-Central Oak Barrens
North-Central Interior Sand and Gravel Tallgrass Prairie
1.4 Laurentian-Acadian Northern Hardwoods Forest
1.5 Laurentian-Acadian Pine-Hemlock-Hardwood Forest North-Central Interior Dry-Mesic Oak Forest and Woodland
1.6 North-Central Interior Beech-Maple Forest
1.6 Laurentian-Acadian Pine-Hemlock-Hardwood Forest

Community phases correlated to Kotar Types 1.2, 1.3 PVCd Pinus strobus/Vaccinium-Cladina
1.1 ,1.5 PArVHa Pinus strobus-Acer rubrum/Vaccinium-Hamamelis virginiana
1.5 PArVVb Pinus strobus-Acer rubrum/Vaccinium-Viburnum acerifolium
1.6 AFO Acer saccharum-Fagus grandiflora/Osmorhiza claytonii


Acknowledgments
The following individuals made substantive comments regarding the development of this ESD: Richard A. Corner, USFS; Andy Henriksen, NRCS; Heather Keough, USFS; Noel Pavlovic, USGS; Matt Sands, USFS; and Randy Schaetzl, Michigan State University.

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Contributors

Gregory J. Schmidt
Greg J. Schmidt

Approval

Nels Barrett, 1/16/2024