Ecological site R102AY010SD

3. Native/Invaded Grass

4. Invaded State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)

1.2. Green Needlegrass-Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Blue Grama

T1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
T1B	-	Heavy continuous grazing, no use, no fire, invasion
T1C	-	Tillage
T2	-	Tillage
T3A	-	Non use, no fire, heavy continuous grazing
T3C	-	Tillage
R4	-	Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning
T4	-	Tillage
R5A	-	Seeding
R5B	-	Seeding, abandonment of cropping

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass

1.3. Big Bluestem-Indiangrass-Sideoats Grama

1.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
1.1B	-	Prescribed burning
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning
1.3A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Little Bluestem-Slender Wheatgrass-Blue Grama

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass

3.2. Green Needlegrass-Little Bluestem-Kentucky Bluegrass

3.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
3.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass

4.2. Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass

4.3. Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

4.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
4.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods
4.3A	-	Time, w/wo disturbances

State 5 submodel, plant communities

5.1. Annual Crops

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site (ES). This state was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. In pre-European times, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included periods of below and/or above average precipitation, periodic fire, and herbivory by insects and large ungulates. Timing of fires and herbivory coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. In some locations, this site likely received relatively heavy grazing pressure. Tall warm-season grasses would have declined and cool-season bunchgrasses and short to mid-statured warm-season grasses would have increased. Today, a similar state, the Native/Invaded State (State 3) can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest.

Community 1.1
Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass

Interpretations are based primarily on the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase (this is also considered to be climax). This plant community evolved with grazing by large herbivores, frequent surface fires, and periodic flooding events and is suited for grazing by domestic livestock. This plant community can be found on areas that are grazed and where the grazed plants receive adequate periods of rest during the growing season in order to recover. The potential vegetation was about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses included big bluestem, Indiangrass, porcupine grass, green needlegrass, and little bluestem. Other grass or grass-like species included switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), sideoats grama, slender wheatgrass, prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), and sedges. This plant community was resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high drought tolerance. This was a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 8. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	2480	2975	3350
Forb	155	350	630
Shrub/Vine	65	175	320
Total	2700	3500	4300

Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 1.2
Green Needlegrass-Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Blue Grama

This plant community evolved under heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included green needlegrass, little bluestem, big bluestem, and sideoats grama. Grasses of secondary importance included blue grama, western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), porcupine grass, Indiangrass, switchgrass, tall dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), prairie dropseed, slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), and sedge (Carex). Forbs commonly found in this plant community included Canada goldenrod (Solidago Canadensis), cudweed sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana), heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), scurfpea (Psoralidium), stiff goldenrod (Oligoneuron rigidum), western ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). This plant community had similar plant composition to the 3.2 Green Needlegrass-Little Bluestem-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of non-native invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass. When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase, green needlegrass and little bluestem increased. Production of tall warm-season grasses was reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes would have been functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses would have been reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allowed for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species.

Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0203, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	20	28	21	10	5	3	0	0

Community 1.3
Big Bluestem-Indiangrass-Sideoats Grama

This plant community was a result of fire occurring at relatively frequent intervals. This phase could have also resulted from a combination of grazing events immediately following early season fire (i.e., large ungulates attracted to highly nutritious vegetative growth following a fire). These events would have caused a reduction in cool-season grasses and an increase in warm-season grasses. The warm-season grasses were more tolerant of shorter return intervals of fire and would have increased in vigor and production leading to a temporary shift to this phase. Needlegrasses would have decreased most significantly amongst the cool-season grasses. The potential vegetation was about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses. The major grasses included big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, sideoats grama, little bluestem, and prairie dropseed. Other grass or grass-like species included green needlegrass, porcupine grass, western wheatgrass, blue grama, slender wheatgrass, tall dropseed, and sedge. This plant community was not resistant to change and would have readily shifted back to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase with a return of more normal fire return intervals.

Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0205, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant.. Warm-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	2	5	15	25	30	15	7	1	0	0

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 1.2 Green Needlegrass-Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Prescribed Burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years), and occasional grazing events immediately following early season fire caused a reduction in cool-season grasses and an increase in warm-season grasses. The warm-season grasses were more tolerant of shorter return intervals of fire, and would increase in vigor and production leading to a temporary shift to the 1.3 Big Bluestem-Indiangrass-Sideoats Grama Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing, and/or prescribed burning returned to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest and/or prescribed burning with late season fire or at infrequent intervals (greater than 5 years) will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase.

State 2
Degraded State

This state is the result of heavy continuous grazing, and the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by blue grama, buffalograss, and western wheatgrass. The blue gama and buffalograss can form a sod-like layer that effectively blocks introduction of other plants into the system. The western wheatgrass will occur on the outer edges and intermingled within the blue grama and buffalograss sod areas. Taller warm-season species will decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot restore the degraded state.

Community 2.1
Little Bluestem-Slender Wheatgrass-Blue Grama

This plant community evolved under heavy continuous season grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included little bluestem, western wheatgrass, sideoats grama, and blue grama. Grasses of secondary importance included big bluestem, switchgrass, green needlegrass, slender wheatgrass, tall dropseed, and sedge. Forbs commonly found in this plant community included cudweed sagewort, green sagewort, and western yarrow. When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase, tall warm-season grasses were reduced, and the more grazing tolerant species such as blue grama, little bluestem, and sideoats grama were dominant on this plant community. With the exception of western wheatgrass, cool-season grasses decreased significantly. This vegetation state was very resistant to change, especially if the disturbance continued and the short-statured species such as blue grama increased. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing. This plant community was less productive than other phases.

Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

State 3
Native/Invaded Grass

This state represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by cool- and warm-season grasses. It can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Taller warm-season species can decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur.

Community 3.1
Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass

This plant community phase is similar to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase, but it also contains minor amounts of non-native invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (up to about 10 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. This community is dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses include big bluestem, green needlegrass, Indiangrass, porcupine grass, and little bluestem. Other grass or grass-like species include switchgrass, sideoats grama, slender wheatgrass, prairie dropseed, and sedges. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 3.2
Green Needlegrass-Little Bluestem-Kentucky Bluegrass

This plant community is a result of heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include green needlegrass, little bluestem, Kentucky bluegrass, big bluestem, and sideoats grama. Grasses of secondary importance include blue grama, western wheatgrass, porcupine grass, Indiangrass, switchgrass, tall dropseed, prairie dropseed, slender wheatgrass, and sedge. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include Canada goldenrod, cudweed sagewort, heath aster, scurfpea, stiff goldenrod, western ragweed, and western yarrow. When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase, green needlegrass and little bluestem have increased. Production of tall warm-season grasses is reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes are functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses are reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allows for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species. The introduction of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass results in alterations to the soil profile. Organic matter levels tend to decrease and begin to be concentrated more in the surface layers and the structure will begin to be modified. These changes favor the shallow-rooted species and hasten their eventual dominance if steps are not taken to reduce these species.

Figure 14. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1850	2506	3125
Forb	125	210	320
Shrub/Vine	25	84	155
Total	2000	2800	3600

Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0203, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	20	28	21	10	5	3	0	0

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 3.2 Green Needlegrass-Little Bluestem-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 3.1 Big Bluestem-Green Needlegrass Plant Community Phase.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

State 4
Invaded State

This state is a result of encroachment mainly by invasive introduced cool-season grasses. The ecological processes are not functioning, especially the biotic processes and the hydrologic functions. The introduced cool-season grasses cause reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. The opportunity for high intensity spring burns is severely reduced by early green up and increased moisture and humidity at the soil surface and grazing pressure cannot cause a reduction in sodgrass dominance. Production is limited to the sod forming species. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases and energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by root depth of the dominant species.

Community 4.1
Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass

This plant community phase is a result of extended periods of nonuse and no fire or occasionally light levels of grazing over several years. It is characterized by dominance of smooth bromegrass and to a lesser extent Kentucky bluegrass. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short, as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. The dominance of these introduced species has been shown to alter the biotic component of the soil, as well as, organic matter levels and eventually the soil structure. These alterations perpetuate the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass and tend to make establishment of native species extremely difficult.

Figure 16. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	2225	2784	3250
Forb	145	320	570
Shrub/Vine	30	96	180
Total	2400	3200	4000

Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0201, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

Community 4.2
Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass

This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and quackgrass. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced, and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.

Figure 18. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1500	1925	2295
Forb	100	220	385
Shrub/Vine	0	55	120
Total	1600	2200	2800

Figure 19. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0201, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

Community 4.3
Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

This plant community developed under continuous heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable but often include non-native invasive and/or early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high, but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites. This community can be renovated to improve the production capability; however, if management changes are not made the vegetation could revert back to early seral species.

Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 4.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 4.3A
Community 4.3 to 4.2

This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass Plant Community Phase.

State 5
Crop Production State

This state is characterized by the production of annual crops using a variety of tillage and cropping systems along with management practices. Cropping on this site is enabled during years with drier than normal precipitation or with artificial drainage (surface or subsurface).

Community 5.1
Annual Crops

This plant community developed with the use of a variety of tillage systems and cropping systems for the production of annual crops including corn, soybeans, wheat, sugar beet and a variety of other crops.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season, and often at the same time of year each year, typically beginning early in the season) will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Little Bluestem-Slender Wheatgrass-Blue Grama Sod Plant Community Phase within the Degraded State.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and/or heavy continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native-Invaded State (State 3).

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Transition T5
State 2 to 4

Encroachment of non-native invasive/noxious species, abandonment of cropping, or seeding of introduced and/or native improved varieties of forage species may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4) and more specifically to the 4.3 Annual/Pioneer, Non-native Perennial Plant Community Phase. In the case of a seeding, refer to the corresponding Forage Suitability Group (FSG) description for adapted species and expected production (production estimates in the FSG description may be unrealistically high due to the degraded condition of the site at this phase).

Transition T2
State 2 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4). Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling.

Transition T3C
State 3 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Restoration pathway R4
State 4 to 3

Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) coupled with prescribed burning may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Transition T4
State 4 to 5

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 5).

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 3

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 5) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 4

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 5) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4) Cropping followed by abandonment may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4) and more specifically to the 4.3 Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer Plant Community Phase.

Additional community tables

Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-Season Grasses			700–1575
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	350–1225	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	175–875	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	70–350	–
	composite dropseed	SPCOC2	Sporobolus compositus var. compositus	0–105	–
2	Cool-Season Bunchgrasses			350–700
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	175–700	–
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	175–700	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–105	–
3	Mid Warm-Season Grasses			350–700
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	175–525	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	70–350	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	70–350	–
4	Wheatgrass			175–350
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	70–350	–
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–175	–
5	Other Native Grasses			105–245
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	35–175	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	35–175	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	35–70	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–35	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–35	–
6	Grass-likes			35–175
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	35–175	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–105	–
Forb
7	Forbs			175–525
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	35–175	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	35–105	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	35–105	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	35–70	–
	aromatic aster	SYOB	Symphyotrichum oblongifolium	0–70	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	35–70	–
	soft-hair marbleseed	ONBEB	Onosmodium bejariense var. bejariense	35–70	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	35–70	–
	compassplant	SILA3	Silphium laciniatum	0–70	–
	Canada goldenrod	SOCA6	Solidago canadensis	35–70	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	35–70	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	35–70	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	35–70	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	35–70	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	35–70	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–70	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	35–70	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	35–70	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	35–70	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	35–70	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–35	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–35	–
	Nuttall's sensitive-briar	MINU6	Mimosa nuttallii	0–35	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–35	–
	cutleaf anemone	PUPAM	Pulsatilla patens ssp. multifida	0–35	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			70–280
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	35–140	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	35–105	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	35–105	–
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–70	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–70	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–35	–

Table 10. Community 3.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-Season Grasses			140–420
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	56–420	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–140	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–140	–
	composite dropseed	SPCOC2	Sporobolus compositus var. compositus	0–140	–
2	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			280–840
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	140–700	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	56–280	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–28	–
3	Mid Warm-Season Grasses			420–700
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	280–700	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	56–420	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	0–140	–
4	Wheatgrass			140–420
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	56–280	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	28–224	–
5	Other Native Grasses			140–280
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	56–224	–
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	28–140	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	28–56	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–28	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–28	–
6	Grass-likes			28–140
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	28–140	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–84	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			140–420
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	140–420	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–224	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	0–140	–
Forb
8	Forbs			140–280
	Canada goldenrod	SOCA6	Solidago canadensis	28–84	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	28–84	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	28–84	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	28–84	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	28–84	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	28–84	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	28–84	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	28–84	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	28–56	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–56	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–56	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	0–28	–
	aromatic aster	SYOB	Symphyotrichum oblongifolium	0–28	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–28	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–28	–
	soft-hair marbleseed	ONBEB	Onosmodium bejariense var. bejariense	0–28	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	0–28	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–28	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–28	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	0–28	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	0–28	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	0–28	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–28	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			28–140
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–112	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	28–56	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–56	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–56	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–28	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–28	–

Table 11. Community 4.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			0–160
	composite dropseed	SPCOC2	Sporobolus compositus var. compositus	0–160	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–96	–
2	Cool-Season Bunchgrasses			0–320
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	0–320	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–64	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–64	–
3	Mid Warm-Season Grasses			0–160
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–160	–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–160	–
4	Wheatgrass			0–160
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–160	–
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–160	–
5	Other Native Grasses			0–160
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–160	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–128	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–32	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–32	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–32	–
6	Grass-likes			0–160
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	0–160	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–64	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			960–2400
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	640–2240	–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	320–1600	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	0–320	–
Forb
8	Forbs			160–480
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	32–320	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	32–224	–
	Canada goldenrod	SOCA6	Solidago canadensis	32–224	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	32–160	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	32–160	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	32–128	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	32–128	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	32–128	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	32–128	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–96	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–32	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–32	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			32–160
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–160	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	32–96	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–64	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–32	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–32	–

Table 12. Community 4.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-season Grasses			0–110
	composite dropseed	SPCOC2	Sporobolus compositus var. compositus	0–110	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–110	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–66	–
2	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			0–110
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	0–110	–
3	Mid Warm-Season Grasses			0–110
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–66	–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–66	–
4	Wheatgrass			0–110
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–110	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–22	–
5	Other Native Grasses			22–220
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	22–220	–
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–66	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–22	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–22	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–22	–
6	Grass-likes			22–110
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	22–110	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–22	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			440–1650
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	220–1320	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	110–880	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	110–660	–
Forb
8	Forbs			110–330
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	22–220	–
	Canada goldenrod	SOCA6	Solidago canadensis	22–132	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	0–110	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	22–110	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	22–110	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	22–110	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	22–88	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–88	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–66	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	0–66	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–22	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			0–110
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–110	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–66	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–44	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–22	–

Interpretations

Animal community

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations
The following table lists annual, suggested initial stocking rates with average growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ES description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. More accurate carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Bluestem/Needlegrass (1.1 & 3.1)
Total annual production (lbs/ac, air-dry): 3500
Stocking rate* (AUM/ac): 0.96

Needlegrass/Little Bluestem/Kentucky Bluegrass (3.2)
Total annual production (lbs/ac, air-dry): 2800
Stocking rate* (AUM/ac): 0.77

Smooth Bromegrass/Kentucky Bluegrass (4.1)
Total annual production (lbs/ac, air-dry): 3200
Stocking rate* (AUM/ac): 0.88

Kentucky Bluegrass/Quackgrass (4.2)
Total annual production (lbs/ac, air-dry): 2200
Stocking rate* (AUM/ac): 0.60

Annual/Pioneer, Non-Native Perennial (4.3)
Total annual production (lbs/ac, air-dry): 1000
Stocking rate* (AUM/ac): 0.27

*Based on 912 lbs./acre (air-dry weight) per Animal Unit Month (AUM), and on 25 percent harvest efficiency (refer to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), National Range and Pasture Handbook).

Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland, in this area, may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements and added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B. Infiltration is typically moderate to moderately slow and runoff potential for this site varies from low to high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by blue grama, buffalograss, bluegrass, and/or smooth bromegrass will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching, and other opportunities. The wide varieties of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an esthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; and Bruce Kunze, Soil Scientist, NRCS.

Data Source Sample Period State County
SCS-Range-417 (1018546039) 1985 SD Deuel
SCS-Range-417 (0018546091) 1985 SD Marshall
SCS-Range-417 (0018646091) 1986 SD Marshall
SCS-Range-417 (0018746091) 1987 SD Marshall
SCS-Range-417 (1018546109) 1985 SD Marshall
NP-ESC-1 (0050746039) 2007 SD Deuel
NP-ESC-1 (0060746039) 2007 SD Deuel
NP-ESC-1 (0070746039) 2007 SD Deuel
NP-ESC-1 (0080746039) 2007 SD Deuel
NP-ESC-1 (0011346039) 2007 SD Deuel

Other references

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C. Carpenter, and W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of the Coterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. Washington, DC. 92 pps.

Gilbert, M. C., Whited, P. M., Clairain Jr, E. J., & Smith, R. D. (2006). A Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Prairie Potholes. Washington DC.

Samson, F. B., & Knopf, F. L. (1996). Prairie Conservation Preserving North America's Most Endagered Ecosystem. Washington D.C.: Island Press.

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. Accessed March 2018.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook, Revision 1. Grazing Lands Technology Institute. 214 pps.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296. 672pps.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, 2150 Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/nasis/)

USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 27 March 2018). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. 2013. Level III and Level IV Ecoregions of the Continental United States. Corvallis, OR, U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, map scale 1:3,000,000. Available at http://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- continental-united-states. (Accessed 1 March 2018).

Contributors

Megan Baxter
Stan Boltz
Lance Howe
Steve Winter

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 6/27/2024

Acknowledgments

Contact for Lead Authors: Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS), Redfield Soil Survey Office Redfield, SD; Lance Howe (Lance.Howe@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; and Steve Winter (Steven.Winter@usda.gov), Soil Scientist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD

Additional Information Acknowledgment: Jason Hermann (Jason.Hermann@usda.gov), Area Rangeland Management Specialist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	David Schmidt, Tim Nordquist, Stan Boltz
Contact for lead author
Date	12/07/2004
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Rills should not be present.
Presence of water flow patterns:
Barely observable.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Essentially, non-existent.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground less than 5% and less than 2 inches in diameter.
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Active gullies should not be present.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Little to no plant litter movement. Plant litter remains in place and is not moved by erosional forces.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Stability class usually 6. Typically high root content, organic matter, and granular structure. Soil surface is very resistant to erosion.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Use soil series description for depth and color of A-horizon.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Healthy, deep rooted native grasses enhance infiltration and reduce runoff.
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
No compaction layer should be evident.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Mid warm-season bunch grass = tall warm-season rhizomatous grass>

Sub-dominant:
tall cool-season bunch grass >> forb > mid warm-season rhizomatous grass > short cool-season grass

Other:
= short warm-season grass = shrubs

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little to no evidence of decadence or mortality.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
70-80%, roughly 0.5 inch thick or less. Litter cover is in contact with soil surface.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
3000 – 4000 lbs./acre air-dry weight, average 3,500 lbs./acre air-dry weight
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Refer to State and Local Noxious Weed List, also Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All species are capable of reproducing.

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Ecosystem states

3. Native/Invaded Grass

4. Invaded State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)