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Ecological site R102AY012SD

Thin Upland

Last updated: 6/27/2024
Accessed: 07/17/2024

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

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Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 102A–Rolling Till Prairie

The Rolling Till Prairie (102A) is located within the Central Feed Grains and Livestock Land Resource Region. It spans 3 states (Minnesota 58 percent, South Dakota 42 percent, and small part in North Dakota), encompassing over 16,000 square miles (Figure 1). The elevation ranges from approximately over 2,000 feet above sea level (ASL) on the Prairie Coteau in Northeastern South Dakota to about 1,000 feet ASL on lowlands. The dominate landform in this area are stagnation moraines, end moraines, glacial outwash plains, terraces, and flood plains. The area is dominated by till covered moraines. The stagnation moraines are gently undulating to steep and have many depressions and poorly defined drainages. Small outwash areas are adjacent to the watercourses. The Cretaceous Pierre Shale underlies the till in the most of the area. Precambrian rocks also occur at depth. Granite is quarried near Milbank, South Dakota and outcrops of Sioux Quartzite are common. (USDA-NRCS 2006).

The dominant soil order in this MLRA is Mollisols. The soils in the area dominantly have a frigid soil temperature regime, an aquic or udic soil moisture regime, and mixed mineralogy. They generally are very deep, well drained to very poorly drained. This area supports true prairie vegetation characterized by big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), porcupinegrass (Hesperostipa spartea), and green needlegrass (Nassella viridula). Prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata) commonly grows in wet areas. (USDA-NRCS 2006).

Classification relationships

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): Rolling Till Prairie (102A) (USDA-NRCS 2006)

USFS Subregions: North Central Glaciated Plains Section (251B); Upper Minnesota River-Des Moines Lobe Subsection (251Ba); Outer Coteau des Prairies Subsection (251Bb); Northwest Iowa Plains Subsection (251Bd); Minnesota and Northeast Iowa Morainal-Oak Savannah Section (222M); Alexandria Moraine-Hardwood Hills Subsection (222Ma) (Cleland et al. 2007).

US EPA Level IV Ecoregion: Tewaukon/Big Stone Stagnation Moraine (46e), Prairie Coteau (46k), Prairie Coteau Escarpment (46l), Big Sioux Basin (46m), Minnesota River Prairie (46o), Des Moines Lobe (47b) , Lake Agassiz Plains (48d), Alexandria Moraines and Detroit Lakes Outwash Plain (51j) (USEPA 2013)

Ecological site concept

The Thin Upland ecological site occurs on the shoulder slopes in the upland areas. Soils are well drained and will effervesce with acid at or near the surface. Precipitation tends to runoff, leaving less soil moisture for plant growth, production is lower, and species composition will tend towards more drought tolerant. In some areas the surface layer may consist of stony to extremely stony. Slopes can range from 0 to 45 percent. Vegetation in the Reference State includes little bluestem, needlegrasses, and prairie dropseed. Forbs include goldenrods, sageworts, heath aster, and scurfpeas. Non-native grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome and quackgrass may invade the site due to changes in disturbance regime.

Associated sites

R102AY010SD	Loamy These sites occur on upland areas. The soils are well drained and have less than 40 percent clay in the surface and subsoil. The central concept soil series is Barnes, Forman, and Poinsett, but other series are included.
R102AY020SD	Loamy Overflow These sites occur in upland swales. The Soils are moderately well drained, which have water flow into and over/through the site. The central concept soil series is Aastad, Brookings, Svea, and Waubay but other series are included.
R102AY011SD	Clayey These sites occur on upland areas. The soils are well drained and have greater than 40 percent clay in the surface and subsoil. The central concept soil series is Mehurin, Peever, and Sinai, but other series are included.
R102AY021SD	Clayey Overflow These sites occur in upland swales. The Soils are moderately well drained which have water flow into and over/through the site and have greater than 40 percent clay in the surface and subsoil. The central concept soil series is Gwinner but other series are included.

Similar sites

R102AY011SD	Clayey The Clayey site occurs in a backslope landscape position and do not effervesce with acid at or near the surface. A Clayey site will have more needlegrasses, less little bluestem, and higher production than a Thin Upland site.
R102AY010SD	Loamy The Loamy site occurs in a backslope landscape position and do not effervesce with acid at or near the surface. A Loamy site will have more big bluestem, less little bluestem and higher production than a Thin Upland site.

R102AY011SD

Clayey

The Clayey site occurs in a backslope landscape position and do not effervesce with acid at or near the surface. A Clayey site will have more needlegrasses, less little bluestem, and higher production than a Thin Upland site.

R102AY010SD

Loamy

The Loamy site occurs in a backslope landscape position and do not effervesce with acid at or near the surface. A Loamy site will have more big bluestem, less little bluestem and higher production than a Thin Upland site.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	(1) Schizachyrium scoparium (2) Hesperostipa spartea

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Physiographic features

The Thin Upland ecological site occurs on the shoulder slopes in the upland areas.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Upland
Elevation	1,000 – 2,000 ft
Slope	45%
Water table depth	80 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

MLRA 102A is considered to have a continental climate – cold winters and relatively hot summers, low to moderate humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature may also abound. The climate is the result of this MLRA’s location near the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the Northern Great Plains and air masses move freely across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.

Annual precipitation typically ranges from 21 to 27 inches per year. The average annual temperature is about 43°F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 5°F (Mahnomen 1 W, Minnesota (MN)), to about 14°F (Tracy, MN). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 69°F (Mahnomen 1 W, MN), to about 73°F (Tracy, MN). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 62°F. This large annual range attests to the continental nature of this area's climate. Hourly winds are estimated to average about 11 miles per hour (mph) annually, ranging from about 13 mph during the spring to about 10 mph during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 mph.

Growth of cool-season plants begins in early to mid-March, slowing or ceasing in late June. Warm-season plants begin growth about mid-May and continue to early or mid-September. Greenup of cool-season plants may occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	112-127 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	137-151 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	25-28 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	99-131 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	130-153 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	24-28 in
Frost-free period (average)	120 days
Freeze-free period (average)	143 days
Precipitation total (average)	26 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 2. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 4. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 5. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 6. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 7. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) ARLINGTON 1 W [USC00390281], Arlington, SD
(2) ARTICHOKE LAKE [USC00210287], Correll, MN
(3) BENSON [USC00210667], Benson, MN
(4) BROOKINGS 2 NE [USC00391076], Brookings, SD
(5) BROWNS VALLEY [USC00211063], Beardsley, MN
(6) CASTLEWOOD [USC00391519], Castlewood, SD
(7) CLARK [USC00391739], Clark, SD
(8) CLEAR LAKE [USC00391777], Clear Lake, SD
(9) FERGUS FALLS [USC00212768], Fergus Falls, MN
(10) FOSSTON 1 E [USC00212916], Fosston, MN
(11) GLENWOOD 2 WNW [USC00213174], Glenwood, MN
(12) LAKE WILSON [USC00214534], Lake Wilson, MN
(13) MAHNOMEN [USC00215012], Mahnomen, MN
(14) MELROSE [USC00215325], Melrose, MN
(15) MILAN 1 NW [USC00215400], Milan, MN
(16) MILBANK 4 NW [USC00395536], Milbank, SD
(17) MORRIS WC EXP STN [USC00215638], Hancock, MN
(18) PIPESTONE [USC00216565], Pipestone, MN
(19) ROY LAKE [USC00397326], Lake City, SD
(20) SISSETON [USC00397742], Sisseton, SD
(21) SUMMIT 1 W [USC00398116], Summit, SD
(22) TRACY [USC00218323], Tracy, MN
(23) TYLER [USC00218429], Tyler, MN
(24) WATERTOWN 1W [USC00398930], Watertown, SD
(25) WEBSTER [USC00399004], Webster, SD

Soil features

The Thin Upland ecological site occurs on the shoulder slopes in the upland areas. Soils are well drained and will effervesce with acid at or near the surface. In some areas the surface layer may consist of stony to extremely stony. The central concept soil series is Buse, Hattie, and Langhei, but other series are included.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Surface texture	(1) Loam (2) Silt loam (3) Silty clay loam
Family particle size	(1) Loamy
Drainage class	Well drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to moderate
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	3 – 8%
Surface fragment cover >3"	40%
Available water capacity (0-40in)	6 – 8 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in)	5 – 40%
Electrical conductivity (0-40in)	4 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in)	Not specified
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in)	6.6 – 8.4
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	3 – 8%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	8%

Ecological dynamics

The site which is located in the Prairie Pothole Region developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions and included natural influence of large herding herbivores and occasional fire. Changes will occur in the plant communities due to weather fluctuations and/or management actions. Under adverse impacts, a relatively rapid decline in vegetative vigor and composition can occur. Under favorable conditions the site has the potential to resemble the Reference State. Interpretations for this site are based primarily on the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase. This community phase and the Reference State have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts also have been considered.

This ecological site (ES) has been grazed by domestic livestock since they have been introduced into the area. The introduction of domestic livestock and the use of fencing and reliable water sources have changed the ecological dynamics of this site. Continuous season-long grazing (during the typical growing season of May through October) and/or repeated seasonal grazing (e.g., every spring, every summer) without adequate recovery periods following grazing events causes departure from the 2.1 Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase. Little bluestem, western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) will increase. Eventually blue grama, quackgrass (Elymus repens), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) may develop into a sod. Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), porcupine grass, green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), sideoats grama, and little bluestem will decrease in frequency and production. Extended periods of nonuse and/or lack of fire will result in excessive litter and a plant community dominated by cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis), and green needlegrass.

Following the state and transition diagram are narratives for each of the described states and community phases. These may not represent every possibility, but they are the most prevalent and repeatable states/community phases. The plant composition tables shown below have been developed from the best available knowledge at the time of this revision. As more data are collected, some of these community phases and/or states may be revised or removed, and new ones may be added. The main purpose for including the descriptions here is to capture the current knowledge and experience at the time of this revision.

State and transition model

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Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded State

3. Invaded State

4. Crop Production State

T1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing, no use, no fire, invasion
T1B	-	Tillage
T2A	-	No use, no fire, heavy continuous grazing
T2C	-	Tillage
R3	-	Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning
T3	-	Tillage
R4A	-	Seeding
R4B	-	Seeding, abandonment of cropping

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed

1.2. Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Porcupine Grass

1.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed

2.2. Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Porcupine Grass-Kentucky Bluegrass

2.3. Little Bluestem-Kentucky Bluegrass

2.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
2.2B	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning
2.2A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
2.3A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass-Forbs/Shrubs

3.2. Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass-Little Bluestem

3.3. Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

3.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
3.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods
3.3A	-	Time w/wo disturbances

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Annual Crops

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site (ES). This state was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. In pre-European times, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included periods of below and/or above average precipitation, periodic fire, and herbivory by insects and large ungulates. Timing of fires and herbivory coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. In some locations, this site likely received relatively heavy grazing pressure. Tall warm-season grasses would have declined and cool-season bunchgrasses and short to mid-statured warm-season grasses would have increased. Today, a similar state, the Native/Invaded State (State 2) can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest.

Community 1.1
Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed

Interpretations are based primarily on the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase (this is also considered to be climax). The potential vegetation was about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 8 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses included little bluestem, porcupine grass, prairie dropseed, big bluestem, Indiangrass, sideoats grama, and green needlegrass. Other grass or grass-like species included plains muhly (Muhlenbergia cuspidata), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), Canada wildrye (Elymus Canadensis), needleandthread (Hesperostipa comata), slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), western wheatgrass, blue grama, and threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia). This plant community was resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high drought tolerance. This was a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 8. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1980	2610	3180
Forb	135	225	345
Shrub/Vine	85	165	275
Total	2200	3000	3800

Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 1.2
Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Porcupine Grass

This plant community evolved under heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 75 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included little bluestem, sideoats grama, and porcupine grass. Grasses of secondary importance included big bluestem, porcupine grass, blue grama, western wheatgrass, prairie dropseed, and threadleaf sedge. Forbs commonly found in this plant community included goldenrod (Solidago), cudweed sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana), heath aster (Symphotrichum ericoides), scurfpea (Psoralidium), western ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). This plant community had similar plant composition to the 2.2 Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Porcupine Grass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass. When compared to the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase, little bluestem and sideoats grama increased. Production of tall warm-season grasses was reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes would have been functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses would have been reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allowed for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species.

Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 1.2 Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Porcupine Grass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed Grazing, and/or prescribed burning returned to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest would have converted this plant community to the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase.

State 2
Native/Invaded State

This state represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by cool- and warm-season grasses. It can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Taller warm-season species can decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur.

Community 2.1
Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed

This plant community phase is similar to the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase but it also contains minor amounts of non-native invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (up to about 10 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 8 percent shrubs. This community is dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses include little bluestem, porcupine grass, prairie dropseed, big bluestem, Indiangrass, sideoats grama, and green needlegrass. Other grass or grass-like species include plains muhly, switchgrass, Canada wildrye, needleandthread, slender wheatgrass, western wheatgrass, blue grama, Kentucky bluegrass, and threadleaf sedge. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 2.2
Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Porcupine Grass-Kentucky Bluegrass

This plant community is a result of heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 75 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include little bluestem, sideoats grama, and Porcupine Grass. Grasses of secondary importance include big bluestem, porcupine grass, blue grama, western wheatgrass, prairie dropseed, and threadleaf sedge. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include goldenrod, cudweed sagewort, heath aster, scurfpea, western ragweed, and western yarrow. When compared to the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase, little bluestem, sideoats grama, and Kentucky bluegrass have increased. Production of tall warm-season grasses is reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes are functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses are reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allows for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species. The introduction of non-native invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass results in alterations to the soil profile. Organic matter levels tend to decrease and begin to be concentrated more in the surface layers, and the structure will begin to be modified. These changes favor the shallow-rooted species and hasten their eventual dominance if steps are not taken to reduce these species.

Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1590	1980	2305
Forb	105	240	420
Shrub/Vine	105	180	275
Total	1800	2400	3000

Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0203, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	20	28	21	10	5	3	0	0

Community 2.3
Little Bluestem-Kentucky Bluegrass

This plant community is a result of heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 75 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include little bluestem and Kentucky bluegrass. Grass and grass-like species of secondary importance include sideoats grama, blue grama, western wheatgrass, threadleaf sedge, green needlegrass, big bluestem, and quackgrass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include goldenrod, cudweed sagewort, heath aster, scurfpea, western ragweed, and western yarrow. When compared to the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase, little bluestem and Kentucky bluegrass have increased. Production of mid- and tall warm- and cool-season grasses is reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. A reduction of the dominant functional groups as found in the interpretive plant community phase allows for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species. The introduction of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass results in alterations to the soil profile. Organic matter levels tend to decrease and begin to be concentrated more in the surface layers, and the structure will begin to be modified. These changes favor the shallow-rooted species and hasten their eventual dominance if steps are not taken to reduce these species.

Figure 14. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1400	1815	2165
Forb	100	220	385
Shrub/Vine	100	165	250
Total	1600	2200	2800

Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0203, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	20	28	21	10	5	3	0	0

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 2.2 Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Porcupine Grass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest and/or prescribed burning with late season fire or at infrequent intervals (greater than 5 years) will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Little Bluestem-Porcupine Grass-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.3

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 2.3 Little Bluestem-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest and/or prescribed burning with late season fire or at infrequent intervals (greater than 5 years) will convert this plant community to the 2.2 Little Bluestem-Sideoats Grama-Porcupine Grass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

State 3
Invaded State

This state is a result of encroachment mainly by invasive introduced cool-season grasses. The ecological processes are not functioning, especially the biotic processes and the hydrologic functions. The introduced cool-season grasses cause reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. The opportunity for high intensity spring burns is severely reduced by early green up and increased moisture and humidity at the soil surface and grazing pressure cannot cause a reduction in sodgrass dominance. Production is limited to the sod forming species. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases and energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by root depth of the dominant species.

Community 3.1
Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass-Forbs/Shrubs

This plant community phase is a result of extended periods of nonuse and no fire or occasionally light levels of grazing over several years. It is characterized by dominance of smooth bromegrass and Kentucky bluegrass. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. The dominance of these introduced species has been shown to alter the biotic component of the soil, as well as, organic matter levels and eventually the soil structure. These alterations perpetuate the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass and tend to make establishment of native species extremely difficult.

Figure 16. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1750	2240	2600
Forb	125	280	500
Shrub/Vine	125	280	500
Total	2000	2800	3600

Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0201, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

Community 3.2
Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass-Little Bluestem

This plant community phase is a result of heavy continuous grazing or a combination of disturbances such as extended periods of below-average precipitation combined with heavy continuous grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and quackgrass and occasionally with significant levels of little bluestem. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short, as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.

Figure 18. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 9. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1080	1512	1890
Forb	85	180	310
Shrub/Vine	35	108	200
Total	1200	1800	2400

Figure 19. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0201, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

Community 3.3
Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

This plant community developed under continuous heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable, but often include nonnative invasive and/or early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites.

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass-Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 3.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass-Forbs/Shrubs Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 3.3A
Community 3.3 to 3.2

This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass-Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase.

State 4
Crop Production State

This state is characterized by the production of annual crops using a variety of tillage and cropping systems along with management practices.

Community 4.1
Annual Crops

This plant community developed with the use of a variety of tillage systems and cropping systems for the production of annual crops including corn, soybeans, wheat, sugar beet and a variety of other crops.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and/or heavy continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Transition T4
State 1 to 3

Encroachment of non-native invasive/noxious species, abandonment of cropping, or seeding of introduced and/or native improved varieties of forage species may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3) and more specifically to the 3.3 Annual/Pioneer, Non-native Perennial Plant Community Phase. In the case of a seeding, refer to the corresponding Forage Suitability Group (FSG) description for adapted species and expected production (production estimates in the FSG description may be unrealistically high due to the degraded condition of the site at this phase).

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass-Forbs/Shrubs Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3). Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Quackgrass-Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Restoration pathway R3
State 3 to 2

Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) coupled with prescribed burning may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Transition T3
State 3 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 2

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 4) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 3

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 4) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3). Cropping followed by abandonment may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the 3.3 Annual Pioneer- Perennial Pioneer Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3).

Additional community tables

Table 10. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Mid Warm-season Grasses			750–1500
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	450–1050	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	150–450	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	150–450	–
	plains muhly	MUCU3	Muhlenbergia cuspidata	30–150	–
2	Tall Warm-season Grasses			300–750
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	150–450	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	150–450	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–150	–
3	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			300–600
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	150–450	–
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	90–300	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	30–150	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	30–90	–
4	Wheatgrass			60–150
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	60–150	–
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–90	–
5	Other Native Grasses			60–150
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–150	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	30–90	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	30–90	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–60	–
6	Grass-likes			30–90
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	30–90	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–60	–
Forb
7	Forbs			150–300
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	30–90	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	30–90	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	30–60	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	30–60	–
	large Indian breadroot	PEES	Pediomelum esculentum	0–60	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	30–60	–
	cutleaf anemone	PUPAM	Pulsatilla patens ssp. multifida	30–60	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	30–60	–
	compassplant	SILA3	Silphium laciniatum	30–60	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	30–60	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	30–60	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	30–60	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	30–60	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	30–60	–
	Nuttall's sensitive-briar	MINU6	Mimosa nuttallii	30–60	–
	purple locoweed	OXLA3	Oxytropis lambertii	0–30	–
	milkvetch	ASTRA	Astragalus	0–30	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–30	–
	aromatic aster	SYOB	Symphyotrichum oblongifolium	0–30	–
	lacy tansyaster	MAPI	Machaeranthera pinnatifida	0–30	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–30	–
	onion	ALLIU	Allium	0–30	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–30	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–30	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–30	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrubs			90–240
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	30–120	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–60	–
	Saskatoon serviceberry	AMAL2	Amelanchier alnifolia	0–60	–
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–60	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	30–60	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	30–60	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–30	–

Table 11. Community 2.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Mid Warm-season Grasses			600–1080
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	480–960	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	120–480	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	0–120	–
	plains muhly	MUCU3	Muhlenbergia cuspidata	0–48	–
2	Tall Warm-season Grasses			24–240
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	24–192	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–72	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–48	–
3	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			120–360
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	48–240	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–192	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–96	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–48	–
4	Wheatgrass			0–144
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–144	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–48	–
5	Other Native Grasses			24–168
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	24–144	–
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–120	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–48	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–48	–
6	Grass-likes			24–120
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	24–120	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–72	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			24–288
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	24–240	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–120	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	0–72	–
Forb
8	Forbs			120–360
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	24–72	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	24–72	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	24–72	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	24–72	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–72	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	24–72	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	24–48	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	24–48	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	0–48	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	24–48	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–48	–
	cutleaf anemone	PUPAM	Pulsatilla patens ssp. multifida	0–24	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–24	–
	compassplant	SILA3	Silphium laciniatum	0–24	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	0–24	–
	lacy tansyaster	MAPI	Machaeranthera pinnatifida	0–24	–
	Nuttall's sensitive-briar	MINU6	Mimosa nuttallii	0–24	–
	purple locoweed	OXLA3	Oxytropis lambertii	0–24	–
	large Indian breadroot	PEES	Pediomelum esculentum	0–24	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	0–24	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–24	–
	onion	ALLIU	Allium	0–24	–
	milkvetch	ASTRA	Astragalus	0–24	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–24	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–24	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			120–240
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	24–120	–
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–72	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	24–48	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–48	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–48	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–48	–
	Saskatoon serviceberry	AMAL2	Amelanchier alnifolia	0–24	–

Table 12. Community 2.3 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Mid Warm-season Grasses			550–1100
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	550–1100	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	44–330	–
2	Tall Warm-season Grasses			0–110
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–110	–
3	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			0–176
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	0–132	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–66	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–44	–
4	Wheatgrass			0–154
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–154	–
5	Other Native Grasses			44–176
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	44–176	–
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–110	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–22	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–22	–
6	Grass-likes			22–154
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	22–154	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–110	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			110–440
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	44–440	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	0–110	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–66	–
Forb
8	Forbs			110–330
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	22–132	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	22–110	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	22–110	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	22–88	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	22–88	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	22–88	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–66	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–66	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	22–66	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–22	–
	onion	ALLIU	Allium	0–22	–
	milkvetch	ASTRA	Astragalus	0–22	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–22	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	0–22	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	0–22	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			110–220
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	22–154	–
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–88	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–66	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	22–44	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–44	–

Table 13. Community 3.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Mid Warm-season Grasses			0–280
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–224	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–140	–
2	Tall Warm-season Grasses			0–140
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–140	–
3	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			0–224
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	0–224	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–84	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–56	–
4	Wheatgrass			0–196
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–196	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–84	–
5	Other Native Grasses			0–140
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–140	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–112	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–28	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–28	–
6	Grass-likes			28–140
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	28–140	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–56	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			840–1680
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	420–1540	–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	140–980	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	0–168	–
Forb
8	Forbs			140–420
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	28–280	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	28–168	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	28–168	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	28–112	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	28–112	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	28–112	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–84	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–56	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–28	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–28	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	0–28	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	0–28	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			140–420
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	140–420	–
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–280	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–56	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–56	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–28	–

Table 14. Community 3.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Mid Warm-season Grasses			18–216
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	18–216	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–54	–
2	Tall Warm-season Grasses			0–54
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–54	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–36	–
3	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			0–54
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	0–54	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–36	–
4	Wheatgrass			0–36
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–36	–
5	Other Native Grasses			0–90
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–90	–
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–54	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–18	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–18	–
6	Grass-likes			36–180
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	36–180	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–36	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			630–1260
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	360–1080	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	90–540	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	18–126	–
Forb
8	Forbs			90–270
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	18–108	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	18–108	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	18–108	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	18–72	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	18–72	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	18–72	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	18–54	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–36	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–36	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–36	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			36–180
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	18–108	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	18–72	–
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–72	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–36	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–18	–

Interpretations

Animal community

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations
The following table lists annual, suggested initial stocking rates with average growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ES description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. More accurate carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Bluestem/Needlegrass/Prairie Dropseed (1.1 & 1.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 3000
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.82

Little Bluestem/Grama/Needlegrass/Bluegrass (2.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2400
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.66

Little Bluestem/Bluegrass (2.3)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2200
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.60

Smooth Bromegrass/Kentucky Bluegrass/Forbs/Shrubs (3.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2800
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.77

Kentucky Bluegrass/Quackgrass/Little Bluestem (3.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 1800
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.49

Annual/Pioneer, Non-Native Perennial (3.3)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 1000
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.27

*Based on 912 lbs./acre (air-dry weight) per Animal Unit Month (AUM), and on 25 percent harvest efficiency (refer to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), National Range and Pasture Handbook).

Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements and added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B. Infiltration is typically moderate to moderately slow and runoff potential for this site varies from medium to high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by blue grama, bluegrass, and/or smooth bromegrass will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching, and other opportunities. The wide varieties of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an esthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; and Bruce Kunze, Soil Scientist, NRCS.

Data Source Sample Period State County
SCS-RANGE-417 (1008546039) 1985 SD Deuel
SCS-RANGE-417 (0018646029) 1986 SD Codington
SCS-RANGE-417 (0018746029) 1987 SD Codington
NP-ESC-1 (0120746039) 2007 SD Deuel

Other references

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C. Carpenter, and W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of the Coterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. Washington, DC. 92 pps.

Gilbert, M. C., Whited, P. M., Clairain Jr, E. J., & Smith, R. D. (2006). A Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Prairie Potholes. Washington DC.

Samson, F. B., & Knopf, F. L. (1996). Prairie Conservation Preserving North America's Most Endagered Ecosystem. Washington D.C.: Island Press.

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. Accessed March 2018.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook, Revision 1. Grazing Lands Technology Institute. 214 pps.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296. 672pps.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, 2150 Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/nasis/)

USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 27 March 2018). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. 2013. Level III and Level IV Ecoregions of the Continental United States. Corvallis, OR, U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, map scale 1:3,000,000. Available at http://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- continental-united-states. (Accessed 1 March 2018).

Contributors

Megan Baxter
Stan Boltz
Lance Howe
Steve Winter

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 6/27/2024

Acknowledgments

Contact for Lead Authors: Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS), Redfield Soil Survey Office Redfield, SD; Lance Howe (Lance.Howe@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; and Steve Winter (Steven.Winter@usda.gov), Soil Scientist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD

Additional Information Acknowledgment: Jason Hermann (Jason.Hermann@usda.gov), Area Rangeland Management Specialist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	David Schmidt, Tim Nordquist, Stan Boltz
Contact for lead author
Date	12/07/2004
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production